Compositions and Methods of Identifying Tumor Specific Neoantigens

ABSTRACT

The present invention related to immunotherapeutic peptides and their use in immunotherapy, in particular the immunotherapy of cancer. Specifically, the invention provides a method of identifying tumor specific neoantigens that alone or in combination with other tumor-associated peptides serve as active pharmaceutical ingredients of vaccine compositions which stimulate anti-tumor responses.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 16/188,737, filed on Nov. 13, 2018, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/187,174, filed on Jun. 20, 2016, which is divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/794,449 filed Jul. 8, 2015, which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/108,610 filed May 16, 2011, and which claims the benefits of U.S. provisional application No. 61/334,866, filed May 14, 2010. The entire contents of these applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

INCORPORATION-BY-REFERENCE OF SEQUENCE LISTING

The contents of the text file name “BIS-70701_ST25.txt”, which was created on Jul. 19, 2011 and is 73 KB in size, are hereby incorporated by reference it their entirety.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to the identification of tumor specific neoantigens and the uses of these neoantigens to produce cancer vaccines.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Tumor vaccines are typically composed of tumor antigens and immunostimulatory molecules (e.g. cytokines or TLR ligands) that work together to induce antigen-specific cytotoxic T cells (CTLs) that recognize and lyse tumor cells. At this time, almost all vaccines contain either shared tumor antigens or whole tumor cell preparations (Gilboa, 1999). The shared tumor antigens are immunogenic proteins with selective expression in tumors across many individuals and are commonly delivered to patients as synthetic peptides or recombinant proteins (Boon et al., 2006). In contrast, whole tumor cell preparations are delivered to patients as autologous irradiated cells, cell lysates, cell fusions, heat-shock protein preparations or total mRNA (Parmiani et al., 2007). Since whole tumor cells are isolated from the autologous patient, the cells express patient-specific tumor antigens as well as shared tumor antigens. Finally, there is a third class of tumor antigens that has rarely been used in vaccines due to technical difficulties in identifying them (Sensi et al. 2006). This class consists of proteins with tumor-specific mutations that result in altered amino acid sequences. Such mutated proteins have the potential to: (a) uniquely mark a tumor (relative to non-tumor cells) for recognition and destruction by the immune system (Lennerz et al., 2005); (b) avoid central and sometimes peripheral T cell tolerance, and thus be recognized by more effective, high avidity T cells receptors (Gotter et al., 2004).

Thus a need exists for a method of identifying neoepitopes that are useful as tumor vaccines.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates in part to the discovery of a method of identifying peptides that are capable of elicting a tumor specific T-cell response.

In one aspect the invention provides methods of identifying a neoantigen by identifying a tumor specific mutation in an expressed gene of a subject having cancer. In some aspects when the mutation is a point mutation the method further comprises identifying the mutant peptide having the mutation. Preferably the mutant peptide binds to a class I HLA protein with a greater affinity than a wild-type peptide and has an IC50 less than 500 nm; In other aspects when the mutation is a splice-site, frameshift, read-through or gene-fusion mutation the method further comprise identifying the mutant polypeptide encoded by the mutation. Preferably, the mutant polypeptide binds to a class I HLA protein.

Optionally, the method further includes selecting peptides or polypeptides that activate anti-tumor CD8 T cells.

The mutant peptide or polypeptide preferably binds to a class I HLA protein with a greater affinity than a wild-type peptide and has an IC50 less than 500 nM. Preferably, the peptide or polypeptide has an IC50 less than 250 nM. More preferably, the peptide or polypeptide has an IC50 less than 100 nM. Most preferably, the peptide or polypeptide has an IC50 less than 50 nM.

The mutant peptide is about 8-10 amino acids in length. In another aspect is about 8-50 amino acids in length. For example, mutant peptide is greater than 10 amino acids in leghth, greater than 15 amino acids in length, greater than 20 amino acids in length, greater than 30 amino acids in length. Preferably the the mutant peptides is about 24-40 amino acids in length.

In a further aspect the invention provides methods of inducing a tumor specific immune response in a subject by administering one or more peptides or polypeptides identified according to the methods of the invention and an adjuvant. The adjuvant is for example, a TLR-based adjuvant or a mineral oil based adjuvant. In some aspects the peptide or polypeptide and TLR-based adjuvant is emulsified with a mineral oil based adjuvant. Optionally, the method further includes administering an anti-immunosuppressive agent such as an anti-CTLA-4 antibody, an anti-PD1 antibody an anti-PD-L1 antibody an anti-CD25 antibody or an inhibitor of IDO.

In yet another aspect the invention provides methods of inducing a tumor specific immune response in a subject by administering to the subject autologous dendritic cells or antigen presenting cells that have been pulsed with one or more of the peptides or polypeptides identified according to the methods of the inventions. Optionally, the method further includes administering an adjuvant such as for example, a TLR-based adjuvant or a mineral oil based adjuvant. In some aspects the peptide or polypeptide and TLR-based adjuvant is emulsified with a mineral oil based adjuvant. In some embodiments the method further includes administering an anti-immunosuppressive agent. Anti-immunosuppressive agents include for example an anti-CTLA-4 antibody, an anti-PD1 antibody an anti-PD-L1 antibody an anti-CD25 antibody or an inhibitor of IDO.

In another aspect the invention provides a method of vaccinating or treating a subject for cancer by identifying a plurality of tumor specific mutations in an expressed gene of the subject, identifying mutant peptides or polypeptides having the identified tumor specific mutations, selecting one or more of the identified mutant peptide or polypeptides that binds to a class I HLA protein preferably with a greater affinity than a wild-type peptide and is capable of activating anti-tumor CD8 T-cells, and administering to the subject the one or more selected peptides, polypeptides or autologous dendritic cells or antigen presenting cells pulsed with the one or more identified peptides or polypeptides. The mutant peptide is about 8-10 amino acids in length. In another aspect is about 8-50 amino acids in length. For example, mutant peptide is greater than 10 amino acids in length, greater than 15 amino acids in length, greater than 20 amino acids in length, greater than 30 amino acids in length. Preferably, the mutant peptides is about 24-40 amino acids in length.

Optionally, the method further includes administering an adjuvant such as for example, a TLR-based adjuvant or a mineral oil based adjuvant. In some aspects the peptide or polypeptide and TLR-based adjuvant is emulsified with a mineral oil based adjuvant. In some embodiments the method further includes administering an anti-immunosuppressive agent. Anti-immunosuppressive agents include for example an anti-CTLA-4 antibody, an anti-PD1 antibody an anti-PD-L1 antibody an anti-CD25 antibody or an inhibitor of IDO.

The method of claim 22, wherein said subject has received a hematopoietic stem cell transplant.

The subject is a human, dog, cat, or horse. The cancer is breast cancer, ovarian cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, kidney cancer, gastric cancer, colon cancer, testicular cancer, head and neck cancer, pancreatic cancer, brain cancer, melanoma lymphoma, such as B-cell lumphoma or leukemia, such as cute myelogenous leukemia, chronic myelogenous leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, or T cell lymphocytic leukemia.

Also included in the invention are pharmaceutical compositions containing the peptide or polypeptide identified according the methods of the invention and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

For example, the invention provides a composition containing least two distinct SF3B1 peptides wherein each peptide is equal to or less than 50 amino acids in length and contains a leucine at amino acid position 625;

-   -   a histidine at amino acid position 626;     -   a glutamic acid at amino acid position 700;     -   an aspartic acid at amino acid position 742; or     -   an arginine at amino acid position 903, when numbered in         accordance with wild-type SF3B1.

The invention also provides a composition containing at least two distinct MYD88 peptides where each peptide is equal to or less than 50 amino acids in length and contains a threonine at amino acid position 232; a leucine at amino acid position 258; or a proline at amino acid position 265, when numbered in accordance with wild-type MYD88

The invention further provides composition containing at least two distinct TP53 peptides where each peptide is equal to or less than 50 amino acids in length and contains an arginine at amino acid position 111; an arginine at amino acid position 215; a serine at amino acid position 238; a glutamine at amino acid position 248; a phenylalanine at amino acid position 255; a cysteine at amino acid position 273 or an asparagine at amino acid position 281, when numbered in accordance with wild-type TP53.

The invention further provides composition containing at least two distinct ATM peptides wherein each peptide is equal to or less than 50 amino acids in length and contain a phenylalanine at amino acid position 1252; an arginine at amino acid position 2038; a histidine at amino acid position 2522; or a cysteine at amino acid position 2954, when numbered in accordance with wild-type ATM.

A composition comprising at least two distinct Abl peptides wherein each peptide is equal to or less than 50 amino acids in length and contains a valine at amino acid position 244;

a valine at amino acid position 248; a glutamic acid at amino acid position 250; an alanine at amino acid position 250; a histidine at amino acid position 252; an arginine at amino acid position 252; a phenylalanine at amino acid position 253; a histidine at amino acid position 253; a lysine at amino acid position 255; a valine at amino acid position 255; a glycine at amino acid position 276; an isoleucine at amino acid position 315; an asparagine at amino acid position 315; a leucine at amino acid position 317; a threonine at amino acid position 343; a threonine at amino acid position 351; a glycine at amino acid position 355; a valine at amino acid position 359; an alanine at amino acid position 359; an isoleucine at amino acid position 379; a leucine at amino acid position 382; a methionine at amino acid position 387; a proline at amino acid position 396; an arginine at amino acid position 396; a tyrosine at amino acid position 417; or a serine at amino acid position 486, when numbered in accordance with wild-type ABL.

Further included in the invention is a composition containing at least two distinct FBXW7 peptides where each peptide is equal to or less than 50 amino acids in length and contains a leucine at amino acid position 280; a histidine at amino acid position 465; a cysteine at amino acid position 505; or a glutamic acid at amino acid position 597, when numbered in accordance with wild-type FBXW7.

In a further a aspect the invention provides a composition containing at least two distinct MAPK1 peptides where each peptide is equal to or less than 50 amino acids in length and contains an asparagine at amino acid position 162; a glycine at amino acid position 291; or a phenylalanine at amino acid position 316, when numbered in accordance with wild-type MAPK1.

The invention also provides a composition containing at least two distinct GNB1 peptides wherein each peptide is equal to or less than 50 amino acids in length and contains a threonine at amino acid position 180, when numbered in accordance with wild-type GNB1.

Also provided by the invention is a method of treating a subject with an imatinib resistant tumor to a HLA-A3 positive subject a composition of Bcr-abl peptide equal to or less than 50 amino acid in length that contains a lysine at position 255 when numbered in accordance with wild-type bcr-abl.

Further provided by the invention, is method of treating a subject with an imatinib resistant tumor comprising administering to the subject one or more peptides containing a bcr-abl mutation where the peptide is equal to or less than 50 amino acid and binds to a class I HLA protein with an IC50 less than 500 nm.

Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention pertains. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice of the present invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are expressly incorporated by reference in their entirety. In cases of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples described herein are illustrative only and are not intended to be limiting.

Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from and encompassed by the following detailed description and claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 shows the balance of specificity and autoimmune toxicity using 3 classes of antigens for tumor vaccines. Whole tumor cells may be the the least specific antigen formulation for tumor vaccines since the full set of protein antigens expressed in tumor cells include thousands of proteins that are also present in other cells of the body. Overexpressed tumor antigens are slightly more specific because they have been selected for much higher and more selective expression in tumors compared to other cells in the body. Nevertheless, it is impossible to test every cell in the body for the expression of these antigens and there is a substantial risk that other cells express them. Finally, mutated proteins generate neoepitopes that are present only in tumor cells and provide the greatest level of specificity.

FIG. 2 is a schema for a personalized neoantigen vaccination strategy that can be applied to the treatment of any cancer. We also highlight the possibility of applying this strategy in two unique scenarios. In the first case, a patient is vaccinated in the early period following hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) (e.g. as is done for CLL, CML and other leukemias). The early post-HSCT period is a unique therapeutic setting as the immune system is competent due to reconstitution with HSCT, thus overcoming tumor- or treatment-induced host immune defects. Moreover, the abundance of homeostatic cytokines in a lymphopenia milieu, such as in the early post-HSCT setting, can contribute to rapid expansion of T cells. In the second case, a patient is vaccinated early in the disease course when immune competence may be more intact in the early stages of disease, before impairment by exposure to chemotherapy (e.g. for solid or hematopoeitic tumors). Since the immune system is likely to be most active in these two specific situations, we suggest that these are the ideal situations for applying tumor vaccination strategies.

FIG. 3 shows a strategy for identifying tumor neoepitopes is described in 3 steps: (1) using sequencing technologies, detect gene mutations that are present in tumor but not germline DNA of a single patient; (2) using prediction algorithms, predict whether mutated peptides have the potential to bind personal HLA allele; these predicted peptides may optionally be tested experimentally for binding to appropriate HLA proteins. In addition, these genes must also be expressed in tumor cells. (3) generate T cells ex vivo and test whether they are able to recognize cells expressing the mutated protein; alternatively, mass spectrometry can be used to detect peptides eluted from tumor cell surface HLA proteins. For chronic lymphocytic leukemia, our studies to date demonstrate that there are an average of 23 protein-altering mutations per patient, 46 predicted binding mutant peptides and 15-25 validated binding mutant peptides. Of these, we anticipate that ˜7-12 peptides are expressed and processed in tumor cells (though this may differ across tumors and patients).

FIG. 4 shows five classes of mutations generate potential tumor neoepitopes. New tumor-specific epitopes can arise as a result of missense, splice-site, frameshift or read-through point mutations (red asterisk), or from the fusion of two genes (or within the same gene). In particular, splice-site, frameshift, read-through mutations and gene fusions can each generate novel stretches of amino acids (in magenta) that are normally not translated, but now are expressed and translated as a result of mutation. Missense mutations lead to peptides with single amino acid changes.

FIG. 5 shows the frequency of mutations per class in CLL patients. Our studies applying next-generation sequencing to a series of 7 CLL tumors reveal that CLL cells harbor many mutations that provide a rich source of possible mutated peptides. We observe that the total number of nonsilent gene alterations in CLL ranged from 17-155 per individual, the majority of which were somatically altered point mutations (missense). The tumors of 4 patients also harbored splice-site mutations; for 3 patients, novel gene fusions were identified by RNA sequencing.

FIG. 6 shows data from automated predictions (Step 2A of the strategy in FIG. 3) of peptide binding (for peptides that harbor a specific missense mutation) against each of a patient's 6 HLA (MHC Class I) alleles. Magenta=strong binders; green=intermediate binders.

FIG. 7 shows methods for conifrming RNA expression of mutated genes (Step 2B of the strategy in FIG. 3). A. For CLL patient 7, we found that more than half of the mutated genes with predicted HLA-binding peptides were expressed at the RNA level. B. We have also used RNA pyrosequencing to detect expressed RNAs harboring specific mutations found in DNA. C. We can validate novel gene fusions that were seen by DNA sequencing using PCR-TOPO cloning of the breakpoint region (depicted is a fusion discovered for patient 2).

FIG. 8 contains three panels, FIGS. 8A-8C, showing a method and data for experimental validation of HLA-peptide binding (Step 2C of the strategy in FIG. 3). FIG. 8A shows schema for experimental validation of peptide binding to specific HLA alleles. FIG. 8B shows a summary of candidate mutated peptides identified in patients 1 and 2. Shaded cells indicate that analysis is in progress. FIG. 8C shows data for predicted vs experimentally verified binding affinity of peptides generated from gene alterations (missense mutation or gene fusion) for patient 2. A prediction cutoff of IC₅₀<120 nM (solid vertical line on left) results in all peptides showing experimental binding to class I HLA.

FIG. 9 shows predicted differential binding of mutated vs germline (i.e also called parental, wild type or normal) peptides to HLA alleles. 12 of 25 predicted HLA binding mutated peptides of Pt 2 have >2 fold greater binding (cutoff=red dotted line) than parental peptides. This further increases the specificity of mutated peptides. Mutated peptides are specific for two reasons: first, many of the T cell receptors that recognize a mutated peptide are not likely to detect the wild type parental peptide; second, some of the mutated peptides can bind HLA with higher affinity than the parental peptide. Since the first property cannot be computationally predicted, we will focus on predicting the second property and selecting for inclusion in vaccines only those peptides that show higher binding to HLA for mutated relative to wild type peptides.

FIG. 10 shows T cell reactivity against a candidate personal CLL neoepitope (Step 3 of the strategy in FIG. 3). We observed that T cells isolated from patient 1 post-therapy can detect a specific mutated TLK2 peptide (peptide #7) (using the Elispot assay).

FIG. 11 shows that BCR-ABL mutations generate many peptides predicted to bind HLA-A and HLA-B alleles. By applying the NetMHC prediction algorithm (Nielsen et al. PLoS One. 2007, 2(8):e796), we predicted peptides generated from the BCR-ABL mutations with potential to bind to 8 common HLA-A and -B alleles. The most common BCR-ABL mutations are ordered in decreasing frequency (from left to right), and predicted IC50 of various class I MHC binding peptides are depicted. In total, we predicted 84 peptides to bind with good affinity, defined as an IC50 of less than 1000, across a wide range of HLA alleles. Of all the predicted peptides, 24 of 84 (29%) were predicted to be strong binders with an IC50<50. 42 peptides (50%) were intermediate binders, defined as IC50 between 50 and 500. 18 peptides (21%) were weak binders defined as IC50 between 500 and 1000.

FIG. 12 contains four panels, FIGS. 12A-12D, showing that BCR-ABL peptide harboring the E255K mutation binds HLA proteins and is associated with specific, polyfunctional T cells present in CML patients. FIG. 12A shows experimentally-derived binding scores of E255K-B (and parental peptide) to HLA A3 and supertype members. FIG. 12B shows that in CD8+ T cells expanded from a HLAA3+E255K+ patient following HSCT, we detected IFNgamma secretion against the E255K-B (MUT) peptide and A3+ expressing APCs expressing the E255K minigene (MG). This response was abrogated in the presence of the class I blocking antibody (w6/32). FIG. 12C shows that IFNgamma-secreting cells were also tetramer+ for the mutated peptide and were (FIG. 12D) polyfunctional, secreting IP10, TNFalpha and GM-CSF (based on the Luminex assay).

FIG. 13 contains three panels, FIGS. 13A-13C, showing that patient-derived T cell clones can recognize tumor-specific epitopes and kill cells presenting these epitopes. FIG. 13A shows reactivity to the CD8+ T cell epitope of CML66 (peptide 66-72C) is restricted by HLA B-4403. FIG. 13B shows that CML66 mRNA can be efficiently nucleofected into CD40L-expanded B cells. FIG. 13C shows that CML66-specific CD8+ T cells are cytotoxic to CD40L B cells expressing CML66 by RNA nucleofection or by peptide pulse, but not control targets.

FIG. 14 contains three panels, FIGS. 14A-14C, showing significantly mutated genes in CLL. FIG. 14A shows the 9 most significantly mutated genes among 64 CLL samples. N—total covered territory in base pairs across 64 sequenced samples. p- and q-values were calculated by comparing the probability of seeing the observed constellation of mutations to the background mutation rates calculated across the dataset. Red bars—genes not previously known to be mutated in CLL; grey bars—genes in which mutation in CLL has been previously reported. FIGS. 14B-14C shows the type (missense, splice-site, nonsense) and location of mutations in ATM, SF3B1, TP53, MYD88, FBXW7, DDX3X, MAPK1, and GNB1 discovered among the 64 CLLs (position and mutation in CLL samples shown above the gene) compared to previously reported mutations in literature or in the COSMIC database (lines show position of mutations below the gene).

FIG. 15 shows that SF3B1 is expressed in CLL samples (7th column in graph) and has higher expression than many control cells, including: PBMC, M: monocyte, CC: cancer cell lines (includes K562, Jurkat, IM9, MCF-7, Hela, Ovcar, RPMI, OTM, MCF-CAR, KM12BM and MM1S).

FIG. 16 shows that SF3B1 mutations generate peptides that are predicted to bind to patient-specific HLA alleles. For example, one peptide that includes the common SF3B1 K700E mutation is predicted to bind HLA strongly.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

One of the critical barriers to developing curative and tumor-specific immunotherapy is the identification and selection of highly restricted tumor antigens to avoid autoimmunity. Tumor neoantigens, which arise as a result of genetic change within malignant cells, represent the most tumor-specific class of antigens. Neoantigens have rarely been used in vaccines due to technical difficulties in identifying them. Our approach to identify tumor-specific neoepitopes involves three steps. (1) identification of DNA mutations using whole genome or whole exome (i.e. only captured exons) or RNA sequencing of tumor versus matched germline samples from each patient; (2) application of validated peptide-MHC binding prediction algorithms to generate a set of candidate T cell epitopes that may bind patient HLA alleles and are based on non-silent mutations present in tumors; and (3) optional demonstration of antigen-specific T cells against mutated peptides or demonstration that a candidate peptide is bound to HLA proteins on the tumor surface.

Accordingly, the present invention relates to methods for identifying and/or detecting T-cell epitopes of an antigen. Specifically, the invention provides method of identifying and/or detecting tumor specific neoantigens that are useful in inducing a tumor specific immune response in a subject.

In particular, the invention provides a method of vaccinating or treating a subject by identifying a plurality of tumor specific mutations in the genome of a subject. Mutant peptides and polypeptides having the identified mutations and that binds to a class I HLA protein are selected. Optionally, these peptide and polypeptides binds to a class I HLA proteins with a greater affinity than the wild-type peptide and/or are capable of activating anti-tumor CD8 T-cells These peptides are administered to the subject. Alternatively, autologous antigen-presenting cells that have been pulsed with the peptides are administered.

The importance of mutated antigens, or neoepitopes, in the immune control of tumors has been appreciated in seminal studies showing that: (a) mice and humans often mount T cell responses to mutated antigens (Parmiani et al., 2007; Sensi and Anichini, 2006); (b) mice can be protected from a tumor by immunization with a single mutated peptide that is present in the tumor (Mandelboim et al., 1995); (c) spontaneous or vaccine-mediated long-term melanoma survivors mount strong memory cytotoxic T cell (CTL) responses to mutated antigens (Huang et al., 2004; Lennerz et al., 2005; Zhou et al., 2005a); (d) finally, follicular lymphoma patients show molecular remission when immunized with patient-specific mutated immunoglobulin proteins that are present in autologous tumor cells. (Baskar et al., 2004). Furthermore, the CTL responses in these patients are directed toward the mutated rather than shared regions of the immunoglobulin protein. Additionally, such mutated peptides have the potential to: (a) uniquely mark a tumor for recognition and destruction by the immune system, thus reducing the risk for autoimmunity; and (b) avoid central and peripheral T cell tolerance, allowing the antigen to be recognized by more effective, high avidity T cells receptors. (FIG. 1)

Identical mutations in any particular gene are rarely found across tumors (and are even at low frequency for the most common driver mutations). Thus, the methods of the present invention will comprehensively identify patient-specific tumor mutations. Using highly parallel sequencing technologies, HLA-peptide binding prediction tools and biochemical assays the methods of the invention will allow: (1) comprehensive identification of mutated peptides that are expressed and bind HLA proteins present in a patient's tumor; (2) monitoring of the natural immune response of cancer patients to these identified neoepitopes; (3) determining whether cytotoxic T cells that recognize these peptides in the context of patient HLA proteins can selectively lyse autologous tumor cells ex vivo. This strategy addresses several fundamental questions related to how the immune system of cancer patients interacts with tumor neoepitopes. These include: which and what fraction of tumor neoepitopes are detected by T cells, how many T cell precursors are able to respond to neoepitopes, how frequent are neoepitope-specific memory and effector T cells in circulation and in the tumor, how much avidity do T cells have for these epitopes, are neoepitope-specific T cells functional? The answers to these questions provide both the justification and strategy for using tumor neoepitopes in human vaccines.

The immune system of a human can be classified into two functional subsystems, i.e., the innate and the acquired immune system. The innate immune system is the first line of defense against infections, and most potential pathogens are rapidly neutralized before they can cause, for example, a noticeable infection. The acquired immune system reacts to molecular structures, referred to as antigens, of the intruding organism. There are two types of acquired immune reactions, i.e. the humoral immune reaction and the cell-mediated immune reaction. In the humoral immune reaction, the antibodies secreted by B cells into bodily fluids bind to pathogen-derived antigens, leading to the elimination of the pathogen through a variety of mechanisms, e.g. complement-mediated lysis. In the cell-mediated immune reaction, T-cells capable of destroying other cells are activated. If, for example, proteins associated with a disease are present in a cell, they are, within the cell, fragmented proteolytically to peptides. Specific cell proteins then attach themselves to the antigen or peptide formed in this manner and transport them to the surface of the cell, where they are presented to the molecular defense mechanisms, in particular T-cells, of the body. Cytotoxic T cells recognize these antigens and kill the cells that harbor the antigens.

The molecules which transport and present peptides on the cell surface are referred to as proteins of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC). The MHC proteins are classified into MHC proteins of class I and of class II. The structures of the proteins of the two MHC classes are very similar; however, they differ quite considerably in their function. Proteins of MHC class I are present on the surface of almost all cells of the body, including most tumor cells. The proteins of MHC class I are loaded with antigens that usually originate from endogenous proteins or from pathogens present inside cells, and are then presented to cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs). The MHC proteins of class II are only present on dendritic cells, B-lymphocytes, macrophages and other antigen-presenting cells. They present mainly peptides, which are processed from external antigen sources, i.e. outside of the cells, to T-helper (Th) cells. Most of the peptides bound by the MHC proteins of class I originate from cytoplasmic proteins produced in the healthy host organism itself and don't normally stimulate an immune reaction. Accordingly, cytotoxic T-lymphocytes which recognize such self-peptide-presenting MHC molecules of class I are deleted in the thymus or, after their release from the thymus, are deleted or inactivated, i.e. tolerized. MHC molecules are only capable of stimulating an immune reaction when they present peptides to non-tolerized cytotoxic T-lymphocytes. Cytotoxic T-lymphocytes have, on their surface, both T-cell receptors (TCR) and CD8 molecules. T-Cell receptors are capable of recognizing and binding peptides complexed with the molecules of MHC class I. Each cytotoxic T-lymphocyte expresses a unique T-cell receptor which is capable of binding specific MHC/peptide complexes.

The peptides attach themselves to the molecules of MHC class I by competitive affinity binding within the endoplasmic reticulum, before they are presented on the cell surface. Here, the affinity of an individual peptide is directly linked to its amino acid sequence and the presence of specific binding motifs in defined positions within the amino acid sequence. If the sequence of such a peptide is known, it is possible, for example, to manipulate the immune system against diseased cells using, for example, peptide vaccines.

Using computer algorithms, it is possible to predict potential T-cell epitopes, i.e. peptide sequences, which are bound by the MHC molecules of class I or class II in the form of a peptide-presenting complex and then, in this form, recognized by the T-cell receptors of T-lymphocytes. Currently, use is made, in particular, of two programs, namely SYFPEITHI (Rammensee et al., Immunogenetics, 50 (1999), 213-219) and HLA BIND (Parker et al., J. Immunol., 152 (1994), 163-175). The peptide sequences determined in this manner, which potentially may bind to MHC molecules of class I, then have to be examined in vitro for their actual binding capacity.

The technical object of the present invention is to provide an improved method for identifying and screening potential T-cell epitopes present in tumor cells, which method allows for simultaneous and rapid examination of a large number of peptide sequences, for their capability of binding to specific MHC molecules.

In the present invention, the technical object on which it is based is achieved by providing a method for identifying and/or detecting mutated antigens that are present in tumors but not in normal tissue. The method uses massively parallel genomic sequencing of the entire coding portion of a cancer patient genome to identify the specific mutated genes in a tumor. In order to narrow down the mutant peptides to those with potential to bind more strongly to HLA than the wild type peptides and thus confer tumor specificity, well-established algorithms will be used to predict peptides that bind any of the 6 unique class I HLA alleles of each patient and a predicted IC50 for all 9- or 10-mer peptides with tumor-specific mutant residues vs. those with the germline residue will be calculated. Typically, peptides with predicted IC50<50 nM, are generally considered medium to high affinity binding peptides and will be selected for testing their affinity empirically using biochemical assays of HLA-binding. Finally, it will be determined whether the human immune system can mount effective immune responses against these mutated tumor antigens and thus effectively kill tumor but not normal cells.

Definitions

A “T-cell epitope” is to be understood as meaning a peptide sequence which can be bound by the MEW molecules of class I or II in the form of a peptide-presenting MHC molecule or MHC complex and then, in this form, be recognized and bound by cytotoxic T-lymphocytes or T-helper cells, respectively

A “receptor” is to be understood as meaning a biological molecule or a molecule grouping capable of binding a ligand. A receptor may serve, to transmit information in a cell, a cell formation or an organism. The receptor comprises at least one receptor unit and preferably two receptor units, where each receptor unit may consist of a protein molecule, in particular a glycoprotein molecule. The receptor has a structure which complements that of a ligand and may complex the ligand as a binding partner. The information is transmitted in particular by conformational changes of the receptor following complexation of the ligand on the surface of a cell. According to the invention, a receptor is to be understood as meaning in particular proteins of MHC classes I and II capable of forming a receptor/ligand complex with a ligand, in particular a peptide or peptide fragment of suitable length.

A “ligand” is to be understood as meaning a molecule which has a structure complementary to that of a receptor and is capable of forming a complex with this receptor. According to the invention, a ligand is to be understood as meaning in particular a peptide or peptide fragment which has a suitable length and suitable binding motives in its amino acid sequence, so that the peptide or peptide fragment is capable of forming a complex with proteins of MHC class I or MHC class II.

A “receptor/ligand complex” is also to be understood as meaning a “receptor/peptide complex” or “receptor/peptide fragment complex”, in particular a peptide- or peptide fragment-presenting MHC molecule of class I or of class II.

“Proteins or molecules of the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)”, “MEW molecules”, “MHC proteins” or “HLA proteins” are to be understood as meaning, in particular, proteins capable of binding peptides resulting from the proteolytic cleavage of protein antigens and representing potential T-cell epitopes, transporting them to the cell surface and presenting them there to specific cells, in particular cytotoxic T-lymphocytes or T-helper cells. The major histocompatibility complex in the genome comprises the genetic region whose gene products expressed on the cell surface are important for bindung and presenting endogenous and/or foreign antigens and thus for regulating immunological processes. The major histocompatibility complex is classified into two gene groups coding for different proteins, namely molecules of MEW class I and molecules of MHC class II. The molecules of the two MHC classes are specialized for different antigen sources. The molecules of MHC class I present endogenously synthesized antigens, for example viral proteins and tumor antigens. The molecules of MEW class II present protein antigens originating from exogenous sources, for example bacterial products. The cellular biology and the expression patterns of the two MEW classes are adapted to these different roles.

MEW molecules of class I consist of a heavy chain and a light chain and are capable of binding a peptide of about 8 to 11 amino acids, but usually 9 or 10 amino acids, if this peptide has suitable binding motifs, and presenting it to cytotoxic T-lymphocytes. The peptide bound by the MEW molecules of class I originates from an endogenous protein antigen. The heavy chain of the MEW molecules of class I is preferably an HLA-A, HLA-B or HLA-C monomer, and the light chain is β-2-microglobulin.

MEW molecules of class II consist of an a-chain and a β-chain and are capable of binding a peptide of about 15 to 24 amino acids if this peptide has suitable binding motifs, and presenting it to T-helper cells. The peptide bound by the MEW molecules of class II usually originates from an extracellular of exogenous protein antigen. The α-chain and the β-chain are in particular HLA-DR, HLA-DQ and HLA-DP monomers.

A “vaccine” is to be understood as meaning a composition for generating immunity for the prophylaxis and/or treatment of diseases. Accordingly, vaccines are medicaments which comprise antigens and are intended to be used in humans or animals for generating specific defense and protective substance by vaccination.

“Isolated” means that the polynucleotide or polypeptide or fragment, variant, or derivative thereof has been essentially removed from other biological materials with which it is naturally associated, or essentially free from other biological materials derived, e.g., from a recombinant host cell that has been genetically engineered to express the polypeptide of the invention.

“Neoantigen” means a class of tumor antigens which arises from tumor-specific mutations in expressed protein.

“Purified” means that the polynucleotide or polypeptide or fragment, variant, or derivative thereof is substantially free of other biological material with which it is naturally associated, or free from other biological materials derived, e.g., from a recombinant host cell that has been genetically engineered to express the polypeptide of the invention. That is, e.g., a purified polypeptide of the present invention is a polypeptide that is at least about 70-100% pure, i.e., the polypeptide is present in a composition wherein the polypeptide constitutes about 70-100% by weight of the total composition. In some embodiments, the purified polypeptide of the present invention is about 75%-99% by weight pure, about 80%-99% by weight pure, about 90-99% by weight pure, or about 95% to 99% by weight pure.

Identification of Tumor Specific Mutations

The present invention is based, on the identification of certain mutations (e.g., the variants or alleles that are present in cancer cells). In particular, these mutations are present in the genome of cancer cells of a subject having cancer but not in normal tissue from the subject.

Genetic mutations in tumors would be considered useful for the immunological targeting of tumors if they lead to changes in the amino acid sequence of a protein exclusively in the tumor. Useful mutations include: (1) non-synonymous mutations leading to different amino acids in the protein; (2) read-through mutations in which a stop codon is modified or deleted, leading to translation of a longer protein with a novel tumor-specific sequence at the C-terminus; (3) splice site mutations that lead to the inclusion of an intron in the mature mRNA and thus a unique tumor-specific protein sequence; (4) chromosomal rearrangements that give rise to a chimeric protein with tumor-specific sequences at the junction of 2 proteins (i.e., gene fusion); (5) frameshift mutations or deletions that lead to a new open reading frame with a novel tumor-specific protein sequence.

Peptides with mutations or mutated polypeptides arising from for example, splice-site, frameshift, readthrough, or gene fusion mutations in tumor cells may be identified by sequencing DNA, RNA or protein in tumor versus normal cells.

Also within the scope of the inventions are peptides including previous identified tumor specific mutations. Know tumor mutation can be found at the Catalogue of Somatic Mutations in Cancer (COSMIC).

A variety of methods are available for detecting the presence of a particular mutation or allele in an individual's DNA or RNA. Advancements in this field have provided accurate, easy, and inexpensive large-scale SNP genotyping. Most recently, for example, several new techniques have been described including dynamic allele-specific hybridization (DASH), microplate array diagonal gel electrophoresis (MADGE), pyrosequencing, oligonucleotide-specific ligation, the TaqMan system as well as various DNA “chip” technologies such as the Affymetrix SNP chips. These methods require amplification of the target genetic region, typically by PCR. Still other newly developed methods, based on the generation of small signal molecules by invasive cleavage followed by mass spectrometry or immobilized padlock probes and rolling-circle amplification, might eventually eliminate the need for PCR. Several of the methods known in the art for detecting specific single nucleotide polymorphisms are summarized below. The method of the present invention is understood to include all available methods.

PCR based detection means can include multiplex amplification of a plurality of markers simultaneously. For example, it is well known in the art to select PCR primers to generate PCR products that do not overlap in size and can be analyzed simultaneously. Alternatively, it is possible to amplify different markers with primers that are differentially labeled and thus can each be differentially detected. Of course, hybridization based detection means allow the differential detection of multiple PCR products in a sample. Other techniques are known in the art to allow multiplex analyses of a plurality of markers.

Several methods have been developed to facilitate analysis of single nucleotide polymorphisms in genomic DNA or celluar RNA. In one embodiment, the single base polymorphism can be detected by using a specialized exonuclease-resistant nucleotide, as disclosed, e.g., in Mundy, C. R. (U.S. Pat. No. 4,656,127). According to the method, a primer complementary to the allelic sequence immediately 3′ to the polymorphic site is permitted to hybridize to a target molecule obtained from a particular animal or human. If the polymorphic site on the target molecule contains a nucleotide that is complementary to the particular exonuclease-resistant nucleotide derivative present, then that derivative will be incorporated onto the end of the hybridized primer. Such incorporation renders the primer resistant to exonuclease, and thereby permits its detection. Since the identity of the exonuclease-resistant derivative of the sample is known, a finding that the primer has become resistant to exonucleases reveals that the nucleotide present in the polymorphic site of the target molecule was complementary to that of the nucleotide derivative used in the reaction. This method has the advantage that it does not require the determination of large amounts of extraneous sequence data.

In another embodiment of the invention, a solution-based method is used for determining the identity of the nucleotide of a polymorphic site. Cohen, D. et al. (French Patent 2,650,840; PCT Appln. No. WO91/02087). As in the Mundy method of U.S. Pat. No. 4,656,127, a primer is employed that is complementary to allelic sequences immediately 3′ to a polymorphic site. The method determines the identity of the nucleotide of that site using labeled dideoxynucleotide derivatives, which, if complementary to the nucleotide of the polymorphic site will become incorporated onto the terminus of the primer.

An alternative method, known as Genetic Bit Analysis or GBA® is described by Goelet, P. et al. (PCT Appln. No. 92/15712). The method of Goelet, P. et al. uses mixtures of labeled terminators and a primer that is complementary to the sequence 3′ to a polymorphic site. The labeled terminator that is incorporated is thus determined by, and complementary to, the nucleotide present in the polymorphic site of the target molecule being evaluated. In contrast to the method of Cohen et al. (French Patent 2,650,840; PCT Appln. No. WO91/02087) the method of Goelet, P. et al. is preferably a heterogeneous phase assay, in which the primer or the target molecule is immobilized to a solid phase.

Recently, several primer-guided nucleotide incorporation procedures for assaying polymorphic sites in DNA have been described (Komher, J. S. et al., Nucl. Acids. Res. 17:7779-7784 (1989); Sokolov, B. P., Nucl. Acids Res. 18:3671 (1990); Syvanen, A.-C., et al., Genomics 8:684-692 (1990); Kuppuswamy, M. N. et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (U.S.A.) 88:1143-1147 (1991); Prezant, T. R. et al., Hum. Mutat. 1:159-164 (1992); Ugozzoli, L. et al., GATA 9:107-112 (1992); Nyren, P. et al., Anal. Biochem. 208:171-175 (1993)). These methods differ from GBA® in that they all rely on the incorporation of labeled deoxynucleotides to discriminate between bases at a polymorphic site. In such a format, since the signal is proportional to the number of deoxynucleotides incorporated, polymorphisms that occur in runs of the same nucleotide can result in signals that are proportional to the length of the run (Syvanen, A.-C., et al., Amer. J. Hum. Genet. 52:46-59 (1993)).

A number of initiatives are currently underway to obtain sequence information directly from millions of individual molecules of DNA or RNA in parallel. Real-time single molecule sequencing-by-synthesis technologies rely on the detection of fluorescent nucleotides as they are incorporated into a nascent strand of DNA that is complementary to the template being sequenced. In one method, oligonucleotides 30-50 bases in length are covalently anchored at the 5′ end to glass cover slips. These anchored strands perform two functions. First, they act as capture sites for the target template strands if the templates are configured with capture tails complementary to the surface-bound oligonucleotides. They also act as primers for the template directed primer extension that forms the basis of the sequence reading. The capture primers function as a fixed position site for sequence determination using multiple cycles of synthesis, detection, and chemical cleavage of the dye-linker to remove the dye. Each cycle consists of adding the polymerase/labeled nucleotide mixture, rinsing, imaging and cleavage of dye. In an alternative method, polymerase is modified with a fluorescent donor molecule and immobilized on a glass slide, while each nucleotide is color-coded with an acceptor fluorescent moiety attached to a gamma-phosphate. The system detects the interaction between a fluorescently-tagged polymerase and a fluorescently modified nucleotide as the nucleotide becomes incorporated into the de novo chain. Other sequencing-by-synthesis technologies also exist.

Preferably, any suitable sequencing-by-synthesis platform can be used to identify mutations. As described above, four major sequencing-by-synthesis platforms are currently available: the Genome Sequencers from Roche/454 Life Sciences, the 1G Analyzer from Illumina/Solexa, the SOLiD system from Applied BioSystems, and the Heliscope system from Helicos Biosciences. Sequencing-by-synthesis platforms have also been described by Pacific BioSciences and VisiGen Biotechnologies. Each of these platforms can be used in the methods of the invention. In some embodiments, a plurality of nucleic acid molecules being sequenced is bound to a support (e.g., solid support). To immobilize the nucleic acid on a support, a capture sequence/universal priming site can be added at the 3′ and/or 5′ end of the template. The nucleic acids may be bound to the support by hybridizing the capture sequence to a complementary sequence covalently attached to the support. The capture sequence (also referred to as a universal capture sequence) is a nucleic acid sequence complementary to a sequence attached to a support that may dually serve as a universal primer.

As an alternative to a capture sequence, a member of a coupling pair (such as, e.g., antibody/antigen, receptor/ligand, or the avidin-biotin pair as described in, e.g., US Patent Application No. 2006/0252077) may be linked to each fragment to be captured on a surface coated with a respective second member of that coupling pair.

Subsequent to the capture, the sequence may be analyzed, for example, by single molecule detection/sequencing, e.g., as described in the Examples and in U.S. Pat. No. 7,283,337, including template-dependent sequencing-by-synthesis. In sequencing-by-synthesis, the surface-bound molecule is exposed to a plurality of labeled nucleotide triphosphates in the presence of polymerase. The sequence of the template is determined by the order of labeled nucleotides incorporated into the 3′ end of the growing chain. This can be done in real time or can be done in a step-and-repeat mode. For real-time analysis, different optical labels to each nucleotide may be incorporated and multiple lasers may be utilized for stimulation of incorporated nucleotides.

Any cell type or tissue may be utilized to obtain nucleic acid samples for use in the diagnostics described herein. In a preferred embodiment, the DNA or RNA sample is obtained from a tumor or a bodily fluid, e.g., blood, obtained by known techniques (e.g. venipuncture) or saliva. Alternatively, nucleic acid tests can be performed on dry samples (e.g. hair or skin).

Alternatively, protein mass spectrometry may be used to identify or validate the presence of mutated peptides bound to MHC proteins on tumor cells. Peptides can be acid-eluted from tumor cells or from HLA molecules that are immunoprecipitated from tumor, and then identified using mass spectrometry.

Neoantigenic Peptides

The invention further includes isolated peptides that comprise the tumor specific mutations identified by the methods of the invention, peptides that comprise know tumor specific mutations, and mutant polypeptides or fragments thereof identified by the method of the invention. These peptides and polypeptides are referred to herein as “neoantigenic peptides” or “neoantigenic polypeptides”. The term “peptide” is used interchangeably with “mutant peptide” and “neoantigenic peptide” in the present specification to designate a series of residues, typically L-amino acids, connected one to the other, typically by peptide bonds between the a-amino and carboxyl groups of adjacent amino acids. Similarly, the term “polypeptide” is used interchangeably with “mutant polypeptide” and “neoantigenic polypeptide” in the present specification to designate a series of residues, typically L-amino acids, connected one to the other, typically by peptide bonds between the a-amino and carboxyl groups of adjacent amino acids. The polypeptides or peptides can be a variety of lengths, either in their neutral (uncharged) forms or in forms which are salts, and either free of modifications such as glycosylation, side chain oxidation, or phosphorylation or containing these modifications, subject to the condition that the modification not destroy the biological activity of the polypeptides as herein described.

In certain embodiments the size of the at least one neoantigenic peptide molecule may comprise, but is not limited to, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 16, about 17, about 18, about 19, about 20, about 21, about 22, about 23, about 24, about 25, about 26, about 27, about 28, about 29, about 30, about 31, about 32, about 33, about 34, about 35, about 36, about 37, about 38, about 39, about 40, about 41, about 42, about 43, about 44, about 45, about 46, about 47, about 48, about 49, about 50, about 60, about 70, about 80, about 90, about 100, about 110, about 120 or greater amino molecule residues, and any range derivable therein. In specific embodiments the neoantigenic peptide molecules are equal to or less than 50 amino acids.

In some embodiments the particular neoantigenic peptides and polypeptides of the invention are: for MHC Class I 13 residues or less in length and usually consist of between about 8 and about 11 residues, particularly 9 or 10 residues; for MHC Class II, 15-24 residues.

A longer peptide may be designed in several ways. In one case, when HLA-binding peptides are predicted or known, a longer peptide could consist of either: (1) individual binding peptides with an extensions of 2-5 amino acids toward the N- and C-terminus of each corresponding gene product; (2) a concatenation of some or all of the binding peptides with extended sequences for each. In another case, when sequencing reveals a long (>10 residues) neoepitope sequence present in the tumor (e.g. due to a frameshift, read-through or intron inclusion that leads to a novel peptide sequence), a longer peptide would consist of: (3) the entire stretch of novel tumor-specific amino acids—thus bypassing the need for computational prediction or in vitro testing of peptide binding to HLA proteins. In both cases, use of a longer peptide allows endogenous processing by patient cells and may lead to more effective antigen presentation and induction of T cell responses.

The neoantigenic peptides and polypeptides bind an HLA protein. In some aspect the neoantigenic peptides and polypeptides binds an HLA protein with greater affinity than a wild-type peptide. The neoantigenic peptide or polypeptide has an IC50 of at least less than 5000 nM, at least less than 500 nM, at least less then 250 nM, at least less than 200 nM, at least less than 150 nM, at least less than 100 nM, at least less than 50 nM or less.

The neoantigenic peptides and polypeptides does not induce an autoimmune response and/or invoke immunological tolerance when administered to a subject.

The invention also provides compositions comprising at least two or more neoantigenic peptides. In some embodiments the composition contains at least two distint peptides. Preferably, the at least two distint peptides are derived from the same polypeptide. By distint polypeptides is meant that the peptide vary by length, amino acid sequence or both. The peptides are derived from any polypeptide know to or have been found to by the methods of the invention to contain a tumor specific mutation. Suitable polypeptides from which the neoantigenic peptides may be derived can be found for example at the COSMIC database. COSMIC curates comprehensive information on somatic mutations in human cancer. The peptide contains the tumor specific mutation. In some aspects the tumor specific mutation is a driver mutation for a particular cancer type. In some aspects, the peptides are derived from a SF3B1 polypeptide, a MYD88 polypeptide, a TP53 polypeptide, an ATM polypeptide, an Abl polypeptide, A FBXW7 polypeptide, a DDX3X polypeptide, a MAPK1 polypeptide of a GNB1 polypeptide.

By a SF3B1 peptide is meant that the peptide contains a portion of a SF3B1 polypeptide. Preferably, a SF3B1 peptide includes either leucine at amino acid position 625; a histidine at amino acid position 626; a glutamic acid at amino acid position 700; an aspartic acid at amino acid position 742; or an arginine at amino acid position 903, when numbered in accordance with wild-type SF3B1. A wild type SF3B1 is shown in Table A (SEQ ID NO:1).

TABLE A  Wild TypeSF3B1 (SEQ ID NO: 1) makiakthedieaqireiqgkkaaldeaqgvgldstgyydgeiyggsdsr fagyvtsiaateledddddyssstsllgqkkpgyhapvallndipqsteq ydpfaehrppkiadredeykkhrrtmiisperldpfadggktpdpkmnar tymdvmreqhltkeereirqqlaekakagelkvvngaaasqppskrkrrw dqtadqtpgatpkklsswdqaetpghtpslrwdetpgrakgsetpgatpg skiwdptpshtpagaatpgrgdtpghatpghggatssarknrwdetpkte rdtpghgsgwaetprtdrggdsigetptpgaskrksrwdetpasqmggst pvltpgktpigtpamnmatptpghimsmtpeqlqawrwereidernrpls deeldamfpegykvlpppagyvpirtparkltatptplggmtgfhmqted rtmksvndqpsgnlpflkpddiqyfdkllvdvdestlspeeqkerkimkl llkikngtppmrkaalrgitdkarefgagplfnqilpllmsptledgerh llvkvidrilyklddlvrpyvhkilvviepllidedyyarvegreiisnl akaaglatmistmrpdidnmdeyvrnttarafavvasalgipsllpflka vckskkswqarhtgikivqqiailmgcailphlrslveiiehglvdeqqk vrtisalaiaalaeaatpygiesfdsvlkplwkgirqhrgkglaaflkai gyliplmdaeyanyytrevmlilirefqspdeemkkivlkvvkqccgtdg veanyikteilppffkhfwqhrmaldrrnyrqlvdttvelankvgaaeii srivddlkdeaegyrkmvmetiekimgnlgaadidhkleeqlidgilyaf qeqttedsvmlngfgtvvnalgkrvkpylpqicgtvlwrinnksakvrqq aadlisrtavvmktcqeeklmghlgvvlyeylgeeypevlgsilgalkai vnvigmhkmtppikdllprltpilknrhekvqencidlvgriadrgaeyv sarewmricfellellkahkkairratvntfgyiakaigphdvlatllnn lkyqerqnrycttvaiaivaetcspftylpalmneyrypelnvqngvlks lsflfeyigemgkdyiyavtplledalmdrdlyhrqtasavvqhmslgvy gfgcedslnhllnyvwpnvfetsphviqavmgaleglrvaigpermlqyc lqglfhparkyrdvywkiynsiyigsqdaliahypriynddkntyiryel dyil

By a MYD88 peptide is meant that the peptide contains a portion of a MYD88 polypeptide. Preferably, a MYD88 peptide includes either a threonine at amino acid position 232; a leucine at amino acid position 258; or a proline at amino acid position 265, when numbered in accordance with wild-type MYD88 when numbered in accordance with wild-type MYD88. A wild type MYD88 is shown in Table B (SEQ ID NO:2).

TABLE B  Wild Type MYD88 (SEQ ID NO: 2) mrpdraeapgppamaaggpgagsaapvsstsslplaalnmrvrrrlslfl nvrtqvaadwtalaeemdfeyleirqletqadptgrlldawqgrpgasvg rllelltklgrddvllelgpsieedcqkyilkqqqeeaekplqvaavdss vprtaelagittlddplghmperfdaficycpsdiqfvqemirqleqtny rlklcvsdrdvlpgtcvwsiaseliekrcrrmvvvvsddylqskecdfqt kfalslspgahqkrlipikykamkkefpsilrfitvcdytnpctkswfwt rlakalslp

By a TP53 peptide is meant that the peptide contains a portion of a TP53 polypeptide. Preferably, a TP53 peptide includes either an arginine at amino acid position 111; an arginine at amino acid position 215; a serine at amino acid position 238; a glutamine at amino acid position 248; a phenylalanine at amino acid position 255; a cysteine at amino acid position 273 or an asparagine at amino acid position 281, when numbered in accordance with wild-type TP53. A wild type TP53 is shown in Table C (SEQ ID NO:3).

TABLE C  Wild Type TP53 (SEQ ID NO: 3) meepqsdpsvepplsgetfsdlwkllpennvlsplpsqamddlmlspddi eqwftedpgpdeaprmpeaappvapapaaptpaapapapswplsssvpsq ktyggsygfrlgflhsgtaksvtctyspalnkmfcqlaktcpvqlwvdst pppgtrvramaiykqsqhmtevvrrcphhercsdsdglappqhlirvegn lrveylddrntfrhsvvvpyeppevgsdcttihynymcnsscmggmnrrp iltiitledssgnllgrnsfevrvcacpgrdrrteeenlrkkgephhelp pgstkralpnntssspqpkkkpldgeyftlqirgrerfemfrelnealel kdaqagkepggsrahsshlkskkgqstsrhkklmfktegpdsd By an ATM peptide is meant that the peptide contains a portion of a SF3B1 polypeptide. Preferably, a ATM peptide includes either a phenylalanine at amino acid position 1252; an arginine at amino acid position 2038; a histidine at amino acid position 2522; or a cysteine at amino acid position 2954, when numbered in accordance with wild-type ATM.

A wild type ATM is shown in Table D (SEQ ID NO:4).

TABLE D  Wild Type ATM (SEQ ID NO: 4) mslvindlliccrqlehdraterkkevekfkrlirdpetikhldrhsdsk qgkylnwdavfrflqkyigketeclriakpnvsastqasrqkkmqeissl vkyfikcanrraprlkcqellnyimdtvkdssngaiygadcsnillkdil svrkywceisqqqwlelfsvyfrlylkpsqdvhrvlvariihavtkgccs qtdglnskfldffskaiqcargeksssglnhilaaltiflktlavnfrir vcelgdeilptllyiwtqhrindslkeviielfqlqiyihhpkgaktgek gayestkwrsilynlydllvneishigsrgkyssgfrniavkenlielma dichqvfnedtrsleisqsytttgressdysvpckrkkielgwevikdhl qksqndfdlvpwlqiatqliskypaslpncelspllmilsqllpqqrhge rtpyvlrcltevalcqdkrsnlessqksdllklwnkiwcitfrgisseqi qaenfgllgaiiqgslvevdrefwklftgsacrpscpavccltlalttsi vpgtvkmgiegnmcevnrsfslkesimkwllfyqlegdlenstevppilh snfphlvlekilvsltmknckaamnffqsvpecehhqkdkeelsfsevee lflqttfdkmdfltivrecgiekhqssigfsvhqnlkesldrcllglseq llnnysseitnsetivrcsrllvgvlgcycymgviaeeeaykselfqkak slmqcagesitlfknktneefrigslrnmmqlctrclsnctkkspnkias gfflrlltsklmndiadickslasfikkpfdrgevesmeddtngnlmeve dqssmnlfndypdssysdanepgesqstigainplaeeylskqdllfldm lkflcicvttaqtntvsfraadirrkllmlidsstleptkslhlhmylml lkelpgeeyplpmedvlellkplsnvcslyrrdqdvcktilnhvlhvvkn lgqsnmdsentrdaqgqfltvigafwhltkerkyifsvrmalvnclktll eadpyskwailnvmgkdfpvnevftqfladnhhqvrmlaaesinrlfqdt kgdssrllkalplklqqtafenaylkagegmremshsaenpetldeiynr ksvlltliavvlscspicekgalfalcksvkenglephlvkkvlekvset fgyrrledfmashldylvlewlnlqdteynlssfpfillnytniedfyrs cykvliphlvirshfdevksianqiqedwkslltdcfpkilvnilpyfay egtrdsgmaqqretatkvydmlksenllgkqidhlfisnlpeivvellmt lhepanssasqstdlcdfsgdldpapnpphfpshvikatfayisnchktk lksileilskspdsyqkillaiceqaaetnnvykkhrilkiyhlfvslll kdiksglggawafvlrdviytlihyinqrpscimdvslrsfslccdllsq vcqtavtyckdalenhlhvivgtliplvyegvevqkqvldllkylvidnk dnenlyitiklldpfpdhvvfkdlritqqkikysrgpfslleeinhflsv svydalpltrleglkdlrrqlelhkdqmvdimrasqdnpqdgimvklvvn llqlskmainhtgekevleavgsclgevgpidfstiaighskdasytkal klfedkelqwtfimltylnntivedcvkvrsaavtclknilatktghsfw eiykmttdpmlaylqpfrtsrkkflevprfdkenpfeglddinlwiplse nhdiwiktltcafldsggtkceilqllkpmcevktdfcqtvlpylihdil lqdtneswrnllsthvggfftsclrhfsqtsrsttpanldsesehffrcc ldkksqrtmlavvdymrrqkrpssgtifndafwldlnylevakvaqscaa hftallyaeiyadkksmddgekrslafeegsgsttisslsekskeetgis lqdllleiyrsigepdslygcgggkmlqpitrlrtyeheamwgkalvtyd letaipsstrgagiigalqnlglchilsvylkgldyenkdwcpeleelhy qaawrnmqwdhctsyskevegtsyheslynalqslrdrefstfyeslkya rvkeveemckrslesvyslyptlsrlqaigelesigelfsrsvthrqlse vyikwqkhsqllkdsdfsfqepimalrtvileilmekemdnsgrecikdi ltkhlvelsilartfkntqlperaifqikqynsyscgvsewqleeaqvfw akkeqslalsilkqmikkldascaannpslkltyteclrvcgnwlaetcl enpavimqtylekavevagnydgessdelrngkmkaflslarfsdtqyqr ienymkssefenkgallkrakeevgllrehkiqtnrytvkvqreleldel alralkedrkrflckavenyincllsgeehdmwvfrlcslwlensgvsev ngmmkrdgmkiptykflplmyglaarmgtkmmgglgfhevinnlisrism dhphhtlfiilalananrdefltkpevarrsritknvpkgssqldedrte aanriictirsrrpqmvrsvealcdayiilanldatqwktqrkginipad qpitklknledvvvptmeikvdhtgeygnlvtiqsfkaefrlaggvnlpk iidcvgsdgkerrqlvkgrddlrqdavmqqvfqmcntllqrntetrkrkl tictykvvplsqrsgvlewctgtvpigeflvnnedgahkryrpndfsafq cqkkmmevqkksfeekyevfmdvcqnfqpvfryfcmekfldpaiwfekrl aytrsvatssivgyilglgdrhvgnilineqsaelvhidlgvafeqgkil ptpetvpfrltrdivdgmgitgvegvfrrccektmevmrnsgetlltive vllydplfdwtmnplkalylqqrpedetelhptlnaddqeckrnlsdidq sfnkvaervlmrlqeklkgveegtvlsvggqvnlliqqaidpknlsrlfp gwkawv

By an Abl peptide is meant that the peptide contains a portion of an Abl polypeptide. Preferably, a Bcr-abl peptide includes a valine at amino acid position 244; a valine at amino acid position 248; a glutamic acid at amino acid position 250; an alanine at amino acid position 250; a histidine at amino acid position 252; an arginine at amino acid position 252; a phenylalanine at amino acid position 253; a histidine at amino acid position 253; a lysine at amino acid position 255; a valine at amino acid position 255; a glycine at amino acid position 276; an isoleucine at amino acid position 315; an asparagine at amino acid position 315; a leucine at amino acid position 317; a threonine at amino acid position 343; a threonine at amino acid position 351; a glycine at amino acid position 355; a valine at amino acid position 359; an alanine at amino acid position 359; an isoleucine at amino acid position 379; a leucine at amino acid position 382; a methionine at amino acid position 387; a proline at amino acid position 396; an arginine at amino acid position 396; a tyrosine at amino acid position 417; or a serine at amino acid position 486, when numbered in accordance with wild-type Abl. A wild type Abl is shown in Table E (SEQ ID NO:5).

TABLE E  Wild Type Abl (SEQ ID NO: 5) MLEICLKLVGCKSKKGLSSSSSCYLEEALQRPVASDEEPQGLSEAARWNSKENLLAGPSENDPNLEVALY DFVASGDNTLSITKGEKLRVLGYNHNGEWCEAQTKNGQGWVPSNYITPVNSLEKHSWYHGPVSRNAAEYL LSSGINGSFLVRESESSPGQRSISLRYEGRVYHYRINTASDGKLYVSSESRENTLAELVHHHSTVADGLI TTLHYPAPKRNKPTVYGVSPNYDKWEMERTDITMKHKLGGGQYGEVYEGVWKKYSLTVAVKTLKEDTMEV EEFLKEAAVMKEIKHPNLVQLLGVCTREPPFYIITEFMTYGNLLDYLRECNRQEVNAVVLLYMATQISSA MEYLEKKNFIHRDLAARNCLVGENHLVKVADFGLSRLMTGDTYTAHAGAKFPIKWTAPESLAYNKFSIKS DVWAFGVLLWEIATYGMSPYPGIDLSQVYELLEKDYRMERPEGCPEKVYELMRACWQWNPSDRPSFAEIH QAFETMFQESSISDEVEKELGKQGVRGAVSTLLQAPELPTKTRTSRRAAEHRDTTDVPEMPHSKGQGESD PLDHEPAVSPLLPRKERGPPEGGLNEDERLLPKDKKTNLFSALIKKKKKTAPTPPKRSSSFREMDGQPER RGAGEEEGRDISNGALAFTPLDTADPAKSPKPSNGAGVPNGALRESGGSGFRSPHLWKKSSTLTSSRLAT GEEEGGGSSSKRFLRSCSASCVPHGAKDTEWRSVTLPRDLQSTGRQFDSSTFGGHKSEKPALPRKRAGEN RSDQVTRGTVTPPPRLVKKNEEAADEVFKDIMESSPGSSPPNLTPKPLRRQVTVAPASGLPHKEEAGKGS ALGTPAAAEPVTPTSKAGSGAPGGTSKGPAEESRVRRHKHSSESPGRDKGKLSRLKPAPPPPPAASAGKA GGKPSQSPSQEAAGEAVLGAKTKATSLVDAVNSDAAKPSQPGEGLKKPVLPATPKPQSAKPSGTPISPAP VPSTLPSASSALAGDQPSSTAFIPLISTRVSLRKTRQPPERIASGAITKGVVLDSTEALCLAISRNSEQM ASHSAVLEAGKNLYTECVSYVDSIQQMRNKFAFREAINKLENNLRELQICPATAGSGPAATQDFSKLLSS VKEISDIVQR

By a FBXW7 peptide is meant that the peptide contains a portion of a FBXW7 polypeptide. Preferably, a FBXW7peptide includes either a leucine at amino acid position 280; a histidine at amino acid position 465; a cysteine at amino acid position 505; or a glutamic acid at amino acid position 597, when numbered in accordance with wild-type FBXW7. A wild type FBXW7 is shown in Table F (SEQ ID NO6).

TABLE F  Wild Type FBW7 (SEQ ID NO: 6) mngellsvgskrrrtggslrgnpsssqvdeeqmnrvveeeqqqqlrqqee ehtarngevvgveprpggqndsqqgqleennnrfisvdedssgnqeeqee deehageqdeedeeeeemdqesddfdqsddssredehthtnsvtnsssiv dlpvhqlsspfytkttkmkrkldhgsevrsfslgkkpckvseytsttglv pcsatpttfgdlraangqgqqrrritsvqpptglqewlkmfqswsgpekl laldelidsceptqvkhmmqviepqfqrdfisllpkelalyvlsflepkd llqaaqtcrywrilaednllwrekckeegideplhikrrkvikpgfihsp wksayirqhridtnwrrgelkspkvlkghddhvitclqfcgnrivsgsdd ntlkvwsavtgkclrtivghtggvwssqmrdniiisgstdrtlkvwnaet gecihtlyghtstvrcmhlhekrvvsgsrdatlrvwdietgqclhvlmgh vaavrcvqydgrrvvsgaydfmvkvwdpetetclhtlqghtnrvyslqfd gihvvsgsldtsirvwdvetgncihtltghqsltsgmelkdnilvsgnad stvkiwdiktgqclqtlqgpnkhqsavtclqfnknfvitssddgtvklwd lktgefirnlvtlesggsggvvwrirasntklvcavgsrngteetkllvl dfdvdmk

By a DDX3X peptide is meant that the peptide contains a portion of a DDX3X polypeptide. A DDX3X peptide is a peptide that is the result of a missence mutation at amino acid position 24; a splice site at amino acid position 342 or a frame shift at amino acid position 410 when numbered in accordance with wild-type DDX3X. A wild type DDX3X is shown in Table G (SEQ ID NO:7).

TABLE F  Wild Type DDX3X (SEQ ID NO: 7) mshvavenalgldqqfagldlnssdngsggstaskgryipphlrnreatk gfydkdssgwssskdkdayssfgsrsdsrgkssffsdrgsgsrgrfddrg rsdydgigsrgdrsgfgkferggnsrwcdksdeddwskplppserleqel fsggntginfekyddipveatgnncpphiesfsdvemgeiimgnieltry trptpvqkhaipiikekrdlmacaqtgsgktaafllpilsqiysdgpgea lramkengrygrrkqypislvlaptrelavqiyeearkfsyrsrvrpcvv yggadigqqirdlergchllvatpgrlvdmmergkigldfckylvldead rmldmgfepqirriveqdtmppkgvrhtmmfsatfpkeigmlardfldey iflavgrvgstsenitqkvvwveesdkrsflldllnatgkdsltivfvet kkgadsledflyhegyactsihgdrsqrdreealhqfrsgkspilvatav aargldisnvkhvinfdlpsdieeyvhrigrtgrvgnlglatsffnerni nitkdlldllveakqevpswlenmayehhykgssrgrskssrfsggfgar dyrqssgassssfsssrasssrsgggghgssrgfggggyggfynsdgygg nynsqgvdwwgn

By a MAPK1 peptide is meant that the peptide contains a portion of a MAPK1 polypeptide. Preferably, a MAPK1 peptide includes either an asparagine at amino acid position 162; a glycine at amino acid position 291; or a phenylalanine at amino acid position 316, when numbered in accordance with wild-type MAPK1. A wild type MAPK1 is shown in Table H (SEQ ID NO:8).

TABLE F  Wild Type MAPK1 (SEQ ID NO: 8) maaaaaagagpemvrgqvfdvgprytnlsyigegaygmvcsaydnvnkvr vaikkispfehqtycqrtlreikillrfrheniigindiiraptieqmkd vyivqdlmetdlykliktqhlsndhicyflyqilrglkyihsanvlhrdl kpsnllinttcdlkicdfglarvadpdhdhtgflteyvatrwyrapeiml nskgytksidiwsvgcilaemlsnrpifpgkhyldqlnhilgilgspsqe dlnciinlkarnyllslphknkvpwnrlfpnadskaldlldkmltfnphk rievegalahpyleqyydpsdepiaeapfkfdmelddlpkeklkelifee tarfqpgyrs

By a GNB1 peptide is meant that the peptide contains a portion of a GNB1 polypeptide. Preferably, a GNB1 peptide includes a threonine at amino acid position 180, when numbered in accordance with wild-type GNB1. A wild type GNB1 is shown in Table I (SEQ ID NO9).

TABLE I Wild Type GNB1 (SEQ ID NO: 9) mseldqlrgeaeqlknqirdarkacadatlsqitnnidpvgriqmrtrrt lrghlakiyamhwgtdsrllvsasqdgkliiwdsyttnkvhaiplrsswv mtcayapsgnyvacggldnicsiynlktregnvrvsrelaghtgylsccr flddnqivtssgdttcalwdietgqqtttftghtgdvmslslapdtrlfv sgacdasaklwdvregmcrqtftghesdinaicffpngnafatgsddatc rlfdlradgelmtyshdniicgitsysfsksgrillagyddfncnvwdal kadragvlaghdnrvsclgvtddgmavatgswdsflkiwn

Neoantigenic peptides and polypeptides having the desired activity may be modified as necessary to provide certain desired attributes, e.g. improved pharmacological characteristics, while increasing or at least retaining substantially all of the biological activity of the unmodified peptide to bind the desired MEW molecule and activate the appropriate T cell. For instance, the neoantigenic peptide and polypeptides may be subject to various changes, such as substitutions, either conservative or non-conservative, where such changes might provide for certain advantages in their use, such as improved MEW binding. By conservative substitutions is meant replacing an amino acid residue with another which is biologically and/or chemically similar, e.g., one hydrophobic residue for another, or one polar residue for another. The substitutions include combinations such as Gly, Ala; Val, Ile, Leu, Met; Asp, Glu; Asn, Gln; Ser, Thr; Lys, Arg; and Phe, Tyr. The effect of single amino acid substitutions may also be probed using D-amino acids. Such modifications may be made using well known peptide synthesis procedures, as described in e.g., Merrifield, Science 232:341-347 (1986), Barany & Merrifield, The Peptides, Gross & Meienhofer, eds. (N.Y., Academic Press), pp. 1-284 (1979); and Stewart & Young, Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis, (Rockford, III., Pierce), 2d Ed. (1984).

The neoantigenic peptide and polypeptides can also be modified by extending or decreasing the compound's amino acid sequence, e.g., by the addition or deletion of amino acids. The peptides, polypeptides or analogs can also be modified by altering the order or composition of certain residues, it being readily appreciated that certain amino acid residues essential for biological activity, e.g., those at critical contact sites or conserved residues, may generally not be altered without an adverse effect on biological activity. The non-critical amino acids need not be limited to those naturally occurring in proteins, such as L-α-amino acids, or their D-isomers, but may include non-natural amino acids as well, such as β-γ-δ-amino acids, as well as many derivatives of L-α-amino acids.

Typically, a series of peptides with single amino acid substitutions are employed to determine the effect of electrostatic charge, hydrophobicity, etc. on binding. For instance, a series of positively charged (e.g., Lys or Arg) or negatively charged (e.g., Glu) amino acid substitutions are made along the length of the peptide revealing different patterns of sensitivity towards various MEW molecules and T cell receptors. In addition, multiple substitutions using small, relatively neutral moieties such as Ala, Gly, Pro, or similar residues may be employed. The substitutions may be homo-oligomers or hetero-oligomers. The number and types of residues which are substituted or added depend on the spacing necessary between essential contact points and certain functional attributes which are sought (e.g., hydrophobicity versus hydrophilicity). Increased binding affinity for an MHC molecule or T cell receptor may also be achieved by such substitutions, compared to the affinity of the parent peptide. In any event, such substitutions should employ amino acid residues or other molecular fragments chosen to avoid, for example, steric and charge interference which might disrupt binding.

Amino acid substitutions are typically of single residues. Substitutions, deletions, insertions or any combination thereof may be combined to arrive at a final peptide. Substitutional variants are those in which at least one residue of a peptide has been removed and a different residue inserted in its place. Such substitutions generally are made in accordance with the following Table when it is desired to finely modulate the characteristics of the peptide.

Original Residue Exemplary Substitution Ala Ser Arg Lys, His Asn Gln Asp Glu Cys Ser Gln Asn Glu Asp Gly Pro His Lys; Arg Ile Leu; Val Leu Ile; Val Lys Arg; His Met Leu; Ile Phe Tyr; Trp Ser Thr Thr Ser Trp Tyr; Phe Tyr Trp; Phe Val Ile; Leu Pro Gly

Substantial changes in function (e.g., affinity for MHC molecules or T cell receptors) are made by selecting substitutions that are less conservative than those in above Table, i.e., selecting residues that differ more significantly in their effect on maintaining (a) the structure of the peptide backbone in the area of the substitution, for example as a sheet or helical conformation, (b) the charge or hydrophobicity of the molecule at the target site or (c) the bulk of the side chain. The substitutions which in general are expected to produce the greatest changes in peptide properties will be those in which (a) hydrophilic residue, e.g. seryl, is substituted for (or by) a hydrophobic residue, e.g. leucyl, isoleucyl, phenylalanyl, valyl or alanyl; (b) a residue having an electropositive side chain, e.g., lysl, arginyl, or histidyl, is substituted for (or by) an electronegative residue, e.g. glutamyl or aspartyl; or (c) a residue having a bulky side chain, e.g. phenylalanine, is substituted for (or by) one not having a side chain, e.g., glycine.

The peptides and polypeptides may also comprise isosteres of two or more residues in the neoantigenic peptide or polypeptides. An isostere as defined here is a sequence of two or more residues that can be substituted for a second sequence because the steric conformation of the first sequence fits a binding site specific for the second sequence. The term specifically includes peptide backbone modifications well known to those skilled in the art. Such modifications include modifications of the amide nitrogen, the a-carbon, amide carbonyl, complete replacement of the amide bond, extensions, deletions or backbone crosslinks. See, generally, Spatola, Chemistry and Biochemistry of Amino Acids, Peptides and Proteins, Vol. VII (Weinstein ed., 1983).

Modifications of peptides and polypeptides with various amino acid mimetics or unnatural amino acids are particularly useful in increasing the stability of the peptide and polypeptide in vivo. Stability can be assayed in a number of ways. For instance, peptidases and various biological media, such as human plasma and serum, have been used to test stability. See, e.g., Verhoef et al., Eur. J. Drug Metab Pharmacokin. 11:291-302 (1986). Half life of the peptides of the present invention is conveniently determined using a 25% human serum (v/v) assay. The protocol is generally as follows. Pooled human serum (Type AB, non-heat inactivated) is delipidated by centrifugation before use. The serum is then diluted to 25% with RPMI tissue culture media and used to test peptide stability. At predetermined time intervals a small amount of reaction solution is removed and added to either 6% aqueous trichloracetic acid or ethanol. The cloudy reaction sample is cooled (4° C.) for 15 minutes and then spun to pellet the precipitated serum proteins. The presence of the peptides is then determined by reversed-phase HPLC using stability-specific chromatography conditions.

The peptides and polypeptides may be modified to provide desired attributes other than improved serum half life. For instance, the ability of the peptides to induce CTL activity can be enhanced by linkage to a sequence which contains at least one epitope that is capable of inducing a T helper cell response. Particularly preferred immunogenic peptides/T helper conjugates are linked by a spacer molecule. The spacer is typically comprised of relatively small, neutral molecules, such as amino acids or amino acid mimetics, which are substantially uncharged under physiological conditions. The spacers are typically selected from, e.g., Ala, Gly, or other neutral spacers of nonpolar amino acids or neutral polar amino acids. It will be understood that the optionally present spacer need not be comprised of the same residues and thus may be a hetero- or homo-oligomer. When present, the spacer will usually be at least one or two residues, more usually three to six residues. Alternatively, the peptide may be linked to the T helper peptide without a spacer.

The neoantigenic peptide may be linked to the T helper peptide either directly or via a spacer either at the amino or carboxy terminus of the peptide. The amino terminus of either the neoantigenic peptide or the T helper peptide may be acylated. Exemplary T helper peptides include tetanus toxoid 830-843, influenza 307-319, malaria circumsporozoite 382-398 and 378-389.

Proteins or peptides may be made by any technique known to those of skill in the art, including the expression of proteins, polypeptides or peptides through standard molecular biological techniques, the isolation of proteins or peptides from natural sources, or the chemical synthesis of proteins or peptides. The nucleotide and protein, polypeptide and peptide sequences corresponding to various genes have been previously disclosed, and may be found at computerized databases known to those of ordinary skill in the art. One such database is the National Center for Biotechnology Information's Genbank and GenPept databases located at the National Institutes of Health website. The coding regions for known genes may be amplified and/or expressed using the techniques disclosed herein or as would be known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Alternatively, various commercial preparations of proteins, polypeptides and peptides are known to those of skill in the art.

In a further aspect of the invention provides a nucleic acid (e.g. polynucleotide) encoding a neoantigenic peptide of the invention. The polynucleotide may be e.g. DNA, cDNA, PNA, CNA, RNA, either single- and/or double-stranded, or native or stabilized forms of polynucleotides, such as e.g. polynucleotides with a phosphorothiate backbone, or combinations thereof and it may or may not contain introns so long as it codes for the peptide. Of course, only peptides that contain naturally occurring amino acid residues joined by naturally occurring peptide bonds are encodable by a polynucleotide. A still further aspect of the invention provides an expression vector capable of expressing a polypeptide according to the invention. Expression vectors for different cell types are well known in the art and can be selected without undue experimentation. Generally, the DNA is inserted into an expression vector, such as a plasmid, in proper orientation and correct reading frame for expression. If necessary, the DNA may be linked to the appropriate transcriptional and translational regulatory control nucleotide sequences recognized by the desired host, although such controls are generally available in the expression vector. The vector is then introduced into the host through standard techniques. Guidance can be found e.g. in Sambrook et al. (1989) Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.

Vaccine Compositions

The present invention is directed to an immunogenic composition, e.g., a vaccine composition capable of raising a specific T-cell response. The vaccine composition comprises mutant peptides and mutant polypeptides corresponding to tumor specific neoantigens identified by the methods described herein.

A person skilled in the art will be able to select preferred peptides, polypeptide or combination of therof by testing, for example, the generation of T-cells in vitro as well as their efficiency and overall presence, the proliferation, affinity and expansion of certain T-cells for certain peptides, and the functionality of the T-cells, e.g. by analyzing the IFN-γ production or tumor killing by T-cells. Usually, the most efficient peptides are then combined as a vaccine.

A suitable vaccine will preferably contain between 1 and 20 peptides, more preferably 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, or 20 different peptides, further preferred 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 11, 12, 13, or 14 different peptides, and most preferably 12, 13 or 14 different peptides.

In one embodiment of the present invention the different peptides and/or polypeptides are selected so that one vaccine composition comprises peptides and/or polypeptides capable of associating with different MHC molecules, such as different MHC class I molecule. Preferably, one vaccine composition comprises peptides and/or polypeptides capable of associating with the most frequently occurring MHC class I molecules. Hence vaccine compositions according to the invention comprises different fragments capable of associating with at least 2 preferred, more preferably at least 3 preferred, even more preferably at least 4 preferred MHC class I molecules.

The vaccine composition is capable of raising a specific cytotoxic T-cells response and/or a specific helper T-cell response.

The vaccine composition can further comprise an adjuvant and/or a carrier. Examples of useful adjuvants and carriers are given herein below. The peptides and/or polypeptides in the composition can be associated with a carrier such as e.g. a protein or an antigen-presenting cell such as e.g. a dendritic cell (DC) capable of presenting the peptide to a T-cell.

Adjuvants are any substance whose admixture into the vaccine composition increases or otherwise modifies the immune response to the mutant peptide. Carriers are scaffold structures, for example a polypeptide or a polysaccharide, to which the neoantigenic peptides, is capable of being associated. Optionally, adjuvants are conjugated covalently or non-covalently to the peptides or polypeptides of the invention.

The ability of an adjuvant to increase the immune response to an antigen is typically manifested by a significant increase in immune-mediated reaction, or reduction in disease symptoms. For example, an increase in humoral immunity is typically manifested by a significant increase in the titer of antibodies raised to the antigen, and an increase in T-cell activity is typically manifested in increased cell proliferation, or cellular cytotoxicity, or cytokine secretion. An adjuvant may also alter an immune response, for example, by changing a primarily humoral or Th response into a primarily cellular, or Th response.

Suitable adjuvants include, but are not limited to 1018 ISS, aluminium salts, Amplivax, AS15, BCG, CP-870,893, CpG7909, CyaA, dSLIM, GM-CSF, IC30, IC31, Imiquimod, ImuFact IMP321, IS Patch, ISS, ISCOMATRIX, Juvlmmune, LipoVac, MF59, monophosphoryl lipid A, Montanide IMS 1312, Montanide ISA 206, Montanide ISA 50V, Montanide ISA-51, OK-432, OM-174, OM-197-MP-EC, ONTAK, PepTel® vector system, PLG microparticles, resiquimod, SRL172, Virosomes and other Virus-like particles, YF-17D, VEGF trap, R848, beta-glucan, Pam3Cys, Aquila's QS21 stimulon (Aquila Biotech, Worcester, Mass., USA) which is derived from saponin, mycobacterial extracts and synthetic bacterial cell wall mimics, and other proprietary adjuvants such as Ribi's Detox. Quil or Superfos. Adjuvants such as incomplete Freund's or GM-CSF are preferred. Several immunological adjuvants (e.g., MF59) specific for dendritic cells and their preparation have been described previously (Dupuis M, et al., Cell Immunol. 1998; 186(1):18-27; Allison A C; Dev Biol Stand. 1998; 92:3-11). Also cytokines may be used. Several cytokines have been directly linked to influencing dendritic cell migration to lymphoid tissues (e.g., TNF-alpha), accelerating the maturation of dendritic cells into efficient antigen-presenting cells for T-lymphocytes (e.g., GM-CSF, IL-1 and IL-4) (U.S. Pat. No. 5,849,589, specifically incorporated herein by reference in its entirety) and acting as immunoadjuvants (e.g., IL-12) (Gabrilovich D I, et al., J Immunother Emphasis Tumor Immunol. 1996 (6):414-418).

CpG immunostimulatory oligonucleotides have also been reported to enhance the effects of adjuvants in a vaccine setting. Without being bound by theory, CpG oligonucleotides act by activating the innate (non-adaptive) immune system via Toll-like receptors (TLR), mainly TLR9. CpG triggered TLR9 activation enhances antigen-specific humoral and cellular responses to a wide variety of antigens, including peptide or protein antigens, live or killed viruses, dendritic cell vaccines, autologous cellular vaccines and polysaccharide conjugates in both prophylactic and therapeutic vaccines. More importantly, it enhances dendritic cell maturation and differentiation, resulting in enhanced activation of TH1 cells and strong cytotoxic T-lymphocyte (CTL) generation, even in the absence of CD4 T-cell help. The TH1 bias induced by TLR9 stimulation is maintained even in the presence of vaccine adjuvants such as alum or incomplete Freund's adjuvant (IFA) that normally promote a TH2 bias. CpG oligonucleotides show even greater adjuvant activity when formulated or co-administered with other adjuvants or in formulations such as microparticles, nano particles, lipid emulsions or similar formulations, which are especially necessary for inducing a strong response when the antigen is relatively weak. They also accelerate the immune response and enabled the antigen doses to be reduced by approximately two orders of magnitude, with comparable antibody responses to the full-dose vaccine without CpG in some experiments (Arthur M. Krieg, Nature Reviews, Drug Discovery, 5, June 2006, 471-484). U.S. Pat. No. 6,406,705 B1 describes the combined use of CpG oligonucleotides, non-nucleic acid adjuvants and an antigen to induce an antigen-specific immune response. A commercially available CpG TLR9 antagonist is dSLIM (double Stem Loop Immunomodulator) by Mologen (Berlin, GERMANY), which is a preferred component of the pharmaceutical composition of the present invention. Other TLR binding molecules such as RNA binding TLR 7, TLR 8 and/or TLR 9 may also be used.

Other examples of useful adjuvants include, but are not limited to, chemically modified CpGs (e.g. CpR, Idera), Poly(I:C)(e.g. polyi:CI2U), non-CpG bacterial DNA or RNA as well as immunoactive small molecules and antibodies such as cyclophosphamide, sunitinib, bevacizumab, celebrex, NCX-4016, sildenafil, tadalafil, vardenafil, sorafinib, XL-999, CP-547632, pazopanib, ZD2171, AZD2171, ipilimumab, tremelimumab, and SC58175, which may act therapeutically and/or as an adjuvant. The amounts and concentrations of adjuvants and additives useful in the context of the present invention can readily be determined by the skilled artisan without undue experimentation. Additional adjuvants include colony-stimulating factors, such as Granulocyte Macrophage Colony Stimulating Factor (GM-CSF, sargramostim).

A vaccine composition according to the present invention may comprise more than one different adjuvants. Furthermore, the invention encompasses a therapeutic composition comprising any adjuvant substance including any of the above or combinations thereof. It is also contemplated that the peptide or polypeptide, and the adjuvant can be administered separately in any appropriate sequence.

A carrier may be present independently of an adjuvant. The function of a carrier can for example be to increase the molecular weight of in particular mutant in order to increase their activity or immunogenicity, to confer stability, to increase the biological activity, or to increase serum half-life. Furthermore, a carrier may aid presenting peptides to T-cells. The carrier may be any suitable carrier known to the person skilled in the art, for example a protein or an antigen presenting cell. A carrier protein could be but is not limited to keyhole limpet hemocyanin, serum proteins such as transferrin, bovine serum albumin, human serum albumin, thyroglobulin or ovalbumin, immunoglobulins, or hormones, such as insulin or palmitic acid. For immunization of humans, the carrier must be a physiologically acceptable carrier acceptable to humans and safe. However, tetanus toxoid and/or diptheria toxoid are suitable carriers in one embodiment of the invention. Alternatively, the carrier may be dextrans for example sepharose.

Cytotoxic T-cells (CTLs) recognize an antigen in the form of a peptide bound to an MHC molecule rather than the intact foreign antigen itself. The MHC molecule itself is located at the cell surface of an antigen presenting cell. Thus, an activation of CTLs is only possible if a trimeric complex of peptide antigen, MHC molecule, and APC is present. Correspondingly, it may enhance the immune response if not only the peptide is used for activation of CTLs, but if additionally APCs with the respective MHC molecule are added. Therefore, in some embodiments the vaccine composition according to the present invention additionally contains at least one antigen presenting cell.

The antigen-presenting cell (or stimulator cell) typically has an MHC class I or II molecule on its surface, and in one embodiment is substantially incapable of itself loading the MHC class I or II molecule with the selected antigen. As is described in more detail below, the MHC class I or II molecule may readily be loaded with the selected antigen in vitro.

Preferably, the antigen presenting cells are dendritic cells. Suitably, the dendritic cells are autologous dendritic cells that are pulsed with the neoantigenic peptide. The peptide may be any suitable peptide that gives rise to an appropriate T-cell response. T-cell therapy using autologous dendritic cells pulsed with peptides from a tumor associated antigen is disclosed in Murphy et al. (1996) The Prostate 29, 371-380 and Tjua et al. (1997) The Prostate 32, 272-278.

Thus, in one embodiment of the present invention the vaccine composition containing at least one antigen presenting cell is pulsed or loaded with one or more peptides of the present invention. Alternatively, peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) isolated from a patient may be loaded with peptides ex vivo and injected back into the patient.

As an alternative the antigen presenting cell comprises an expression construct encoding a peptide of the present invention. The polynucleotide may be any suitable polynucleotide and it is preferred that it is capable of transducing the dendritic cell, thus resulting in the presentation of a peptide and induction of immunity.

Therapeutic Methods

The invention further provides a method of inducing a tumor specific immune response in a subject, vaccinating against a tumor, treating and or alleviating a symptom of cancer in a subject by administering the subject a neoantigenic peptide or vaccine composition of the invention.

The subject has been diagnosed with cancer or is at risk of developing cancer. The subject has a imatinib resistant tumor. The subject is a human, dog, cat, horse or any animal in which a tumor specific immune response is desired. The tumor is any solid tumor such as breast, ovarian, prostate, lung, kidney, gastric, colon, testicular, head and neck, pancreas, brain, melanoma, and other tumors of tissue organs and hematological tumors, such as lymphomas and leukemias, including acute myelogenous leukemia, chronic myelogenous leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, T cell lymphocytic leukemia, and B cell lymphomas.

The peptide or composition of the invention is administered in an amount sufficient to induce a CTL response.

In specific embodiments, the invention provides methods of treating an imatinib resistant tumor by administering to a subject one or more neoantigenic peptides that contain a bcr-abl mutation. In some embodiments the subject is HLA-A3. Bcr-abl mutations include for example T315I, E255K, M351T, Y253H, Q252H, F317L, F359V, G250E, Y253F, E355G, E255V, M244V, L248V, G250A, Q252R, D276G, T315N, M343T, F359A, V379I, F382L, L387M, H396P, H396R, S417Y, F486S.

The neoantigenic peptide, polypeptide or vaccine composition of the invention can be administered alone or in combination with other therapeutic agents. The therapeutic agent is for example, a chemotherapeutic agent, radiation, or immunotherapy. Any suitable therapeutic treatment for a particular cancer may be administered. Examples of chemotherapeutic agents include, but are not limited to, aldesleukin, altretamine, amifostine, asparaginase, bleomycin, capecitabine, carboplatin, carmustine, cladribine, cisapride, cisplatin, cyclophosphamide, cytarabine, dacarbazine (DTIC), dactinomycin, docetaxel, doxorubicin, dronabinol, epoetin alpha, etoposide, filgrastim, fludarabine, fluorouracil, gemcitabine, granisetron, hydroxyurea, idarubicin, ifosfamide, interferon alpha, irinotecan, lansoprazole, levamisole, leucovorin, megestrol, mesna, methotrexate, metoclopramide, mitomycin, mitotane, mitoxantrone, omeprazole, ondansetron, paclitaxel (Taxol®), pilocarpine, prochloroperazine, rituximab, tamoxifen, taxol, topotecan hydrochloride, trastuzumab, vinblastine, vincristine and vinorelbine tartrate. For prostate cancer treatment, a preferred chemotherapeutic agent with which anti-CTLA-4 can be combined is paclitaxel (Taxol®).

In addition, the subject may be further administered an anti-immunosuppressive/immunostimulatory agent. For example, the subject is further administered an anti-CTLA antibody or anti-PD-1 or anti-PD-L1. Blockade of CTLA-4 or PD-L1 by antibodies can enhance the immune response to cancerous cells in the patient. In particular, CTLA-4 blockade has been shown effective when following a vaccination protocol.

The optimum amount of each peptide to be included in the vaccine composition and the optimum dosing regimen can be determined by one skilled in the art without undue experimentation. For example, the peptide or its variant may be prepared for intravenous (i.v.) injection, sub-cutaneous (s.c.) injection, intradermal (i.d.) injection, intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection, intramuscular (i.m.) injection. Preferred methods of peptide injection include s.c., i.d., i.p., i.m., and i.v. Preferred methods of DNA injection include i.d., i.m., s.c., i.p. and i.v. For example, doses of between 1 and 500 mg 50 μg and 1.5 mg, preferably 125 μg to 500 μg, of peptide or DNA may be given and will depend from the respective peptide or DNA. Doses of this range were successfully used in previous trials (Brunsvig P F, et al., Cancer Immunol Immunother. 2006; 55(12):1553-1564; M. Staehler, et al., ASCO meeting 2007; Abstract No 3017). Other methods of administion of the vaccine composition are known to thoses skilled in the art.

The inventive pharmaceutical composition may be compiled so that the selection, number and/or amount of peptides present in the composition is/are tissue, cancer, and/or patient-specific. For instance, the exact selection of peptides can be guided by expression patterns of the parent proteins in a given tissue to avoid side effects. The selection may be dependent on the specific type of cancer, the status of the disease, earlier treatment regimens, the immune status of the patient, and, of course, the HLA-haplotype of the patient. Furthermore, the vaccine according to the invention can contain individualized components, according to personal needs of the particular patient. Examples include varying the amounts of peptides according to the expression of the related neoantigen in the particular patient, unwanted side-effects due to personal allergies or other treatments, and adjustments for secondary treatments following a first round or scheme of treatment.

For a composition to be used as a vaccine for cancer, peptides whose endogenous parent proteins are expressed in high amounts in normal tissues will be avoided or be present in low amounts in the composition of the invention. On the other hand, if it is known that the tumor of a patient expresses high amounts of a certain protein, the respective pharmaceutical composition for treatment of this cancer may be present in high amounts and/or more than one peptide specific for this particularly protein or pathway of this protein may be included.

Pharmaceutical compositions comprising the peptide of the invention may be administered to an individual already suffering from cancer. In therapeutic applications, compositions are administered to a patient in an amount sufficient to elicit an effective CTL response to the tumor antigen and to cure or at least partially arrest symptoms and/or complications. An amount adequate to accomplish this is defined as “therapeutically effective dose.” Amounts effective for this use will depend on, e.g., the peptide composition, the manner of administration, the stage and severity of the disease being treated, the weight and general state of health of the patient, and the judgment of the prescribing physician, but generally range for the initial immunization (that is for therapeutic or prophylactic administration) from about 1.0 μg to about 50,000 μg of peptide for a 70 kg patient, followed by boosting dosages or from about 1.0 μg to about 10,000 μg of peptide pursuant to a boosting regimen over weeks to months depending upon the patient's response and condition by measuring specific CTL activity in the patient's blood. It must be kept in mind that the peptide and compositions of the present invention may generally be employed in serious disease states, that is, life-threatening or potentially life threatening situations, especially when the cancer has metastasized. In such cases, in view of the minimization of extraneous substances and the relative nontoxic nature of the peptide, it is possible and may be felt desirable by the treating physician to administer substantial excesses of these peptide compositions.

For therapeutic use, administration should begin at the detection or surgical removal of tumors. This is followed by boosting doses until at least symptoms are substantially abated and for a period thereafter.

The pharmaceutical compositions (e.g., vaccine compositions) for therapeutic treatment are intended for parenteral, topical, nasal, oral or local administration. Preferably, the pharmaceutical compositions are administered parenterally, e.g., intravenously, subcutaneously, intradermally, or intramuscularly. The composisitions may be administerd at the site of surgical exiscion to induce a local immune response to the tumor. The invention provides compositions for parenteral administration which comprise a solution of the peptides and vaccine compositions are dissolved or suspended in an acceptable carrier, preferably an aqueous carrier. A variety of aqueous carriers may be used, e.g., water, buffered water, 0.9% saline, 0.3% glycine, hyaluronic acid and the like. These compositions may be sterilized by conventional, well known sterilization techniques, or may be sterile filtered. The resulting aqueous solutions may be packaged for use as is, or lyophilized, the lyophilized preparation being combined with a sterile solution prior to administration. The compositions may contain pharmaceutically acceptable auxiliary substances as required to approximate physiological conditions, such as pH adjusting and buffering agents, tonicity adjusting agents, wetting agents and the like, for example, sodium acetate, sodium lactate, sodium chloride, potassium chloride, calcium chloride, sorbitan monolaurate, triethanolamine oleate, etc.

The concentration of peptides of the invention in the pharmaceutical formulations can vary widely, i.e., from less than about 0.1%, usually at or at least about 2% to as much as 20% to 50% or more by weight, and will be selected primarily by fluid volumes, viscosities, etc., in accordance with the particular mode of administration selected.

The peptide of the invention may also be administered via liposomes, which target the peptides to a particular cells tissue, such as lymphoid tissue. Liposomes are also useful in increasing the half-life of the peptides. Liposomes include emulsions, foams, micelles, insoluble monolayers, liquid crystals, phospholipid dispersions, lamellar layers and the like. In these preparations the peptide to be delivered is incorporated as part of a liposome, alone or in conjunction with a molecule which binds to, e.g., a receptor prevalent among lymphoid cells, such as monoclonal antibodies which bind to the CD45 antigen, or with other therapeutic or immunogenic compositions. Thus, liposomes filled with a desired peptide of the invention can be directed to the site of lymphoid cells, where the liposomes then deliver the selected therapeutic/immunogenic peptide compositions. Liposomes for use in the invention are formed from standard vesicle-forming lipids, which generally include neutral and negatively charged phospholipids and a sterol, such as cholesterol. The selection of lipids is generally guided by consideration of, e.g., liposome size, acid lability and stability of the liposomes in the blood stream. A variety of methods are available for preparing liposomes, as described in, e.g., Szoka et al., Ann. Rev. Biophys. Bioeng. 9; 467 (1980), U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,235,871, 4,501,728, 4,837,028 and 5,019,369.

For targeting to the immune cells, a ligand to be incorporated into the liposome can include, e.g., antibodies or fragments thereof specific for cell surface determinants of the desired immune system cells. A liposome suspension containing a peptide may be administered intravenously, locally, topically, etc. in a dose which varies according to, inter alia, the manner of administration, the peptide being delivered, and the stage of the disease being treated.

For solid compositions, conventional or nanoparticle nontoxic solid carriers may be used which include, for example, pharmaceutical grades of mannitol, lactose, starch, magnesium stearate, sodium saccharin, talcum, cellulose, glucose, sucrose, magnesium carbonate, and the like. For oral administration, a pharmaceutically acceptable nontoxic composition is formed by incorporating any of the normally employed excipients, such as those carriers previously listed, and generally 10-95% of active ingredient, that is, one or more peptides of the invention, and more preferably at a concentration of 25%-75%.

For aerosol administration, the immunogenic peptides are preferably supplied in finely divided form along with a surfactant and propellant. Typical percentages of peptides are 0.01%-20% by weight, preferably 1%-10%. The surfactant must, of course, be nontoxic, and preferably soluble in the propellant. Representative of such agents are the esters or partial esters of fatty acids containing from 6 to 22 carbon atoms, such as caproic, octanoic, lauric, palmitic, stearic, linoleic, linolenic, olesteric and oleic acids with an aliphatic polyhydric alcohol or its cyclic anhydride. Mixed esters, such as mixed or natural glycerides may be employed. The surfactant may constitute 0.1%-20% by weight of the composition, preferably 0.25-5%. The balance of the composition is ordinarily propellant. A carrier can also be included as desired, as with, e.g., lecithin for intranasal delivery.

For therapeutic or immunization purposes, nucleic acids encoding the peptide of the invention and optionally one or more of the peptides described herein can also be administered to the patient. A number of methods are conveniently used to deliver the nucleic acids to the patient. For instance, the nucleic acid can be delivered directly, as “naked DNA”. This approach is described, for instance, in Wolff et al., Science 247: 1465-1468 (1990) as well as U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,580,859 and 5,589,466. The nucleic acids can also be administered using ballistic delivery as described, for instance, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,204,253. Particles comprised solely of DNA can be administered. Alternatively, DNA can be adhered to particles, such as gold particles.

The nucleic acids can also be delivered complexed to cationic compounds, such as cationic lipids. Lipid-mediated gene delivery methods are described, for instance, in 9618372WOAWO 96/18372; 9324640WOAWO 93/24640; Mannino & Gould-Fogerite, BioTechniques 6(7): 682-691 (1988); 5279833USARose U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,279,833; 9,106,309WOAWO 91/06309; and Felgner et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 84: 7413-7414 (1987).

The peptides and polypeptided of the invention can also be expressed by attenuated viral hosts, such as vaccinia or fowlpox. This approach involves the use of vaccinia virus as a vector to express nucleotide sequences that encode the peptide of the invention. Upon introduction into an acutely or chronically infected host or into a noninfected host, the recombinant vaccinia virus expresses the immunogenic peptide, and thereby elicits a host CTL response. Vaccinia vectors and methods useful in immunization protocols are described in, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,722,848. Another vector is BCG (Bacille Calmette Guerin). BCG vectors are described in Stover et al. (Nature 351:456-460 (1991)). A wide variety of other vectors useful for therapeutic administration or immunization of the peptides of the invention, e.g., Salmonella typhi vectors and the like, will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the description herein.

A preferred means of administering nucleic acids encoding the peptide of the invention uses minigene constructs encoding multiple epitopes. To create a DNA sequence encoding the selected CTL epitopes (minigene) for expression in human cells, the amino acid sequences of the epitopes are reverse translated. A human codon usage table is used to guide the codon choice for each amino acid. These epitope-encoding DNA sequences are directly adjoined, creating a continuous polypeptide sequence. To optimize expression and/or immunogenicity, additional elements can be incorporated into the minigene design. Examples of amino acid sequence that could be reverse translated and included in the minigene sequence include: helper T lymphocyte, epitopes, a leader (signal) sequence, and an endoplasmic reticulum retention signal. In addition, MHC presentation of CTL epitopes may be improved by including synthetic (e.g. poly-alanine) or naturally-occurring flanking sequences adjacent to the CTL epitopes.

The minigene sequence is converted to DNA by assembling oligonucleotides that encode the plus and minus strands of the minigene. Overlapping oligonucleotides (30-100 bases long) are synthesized, phosphorylated, purified and annealed under appropriate conditions using well known techniques. The ends of the oligonucleotides are joined using T4 DNA ligase. This synthetic minigene, encoding the CTL epitope polypeptide, can then cloned into a desired expression vector.

Standard regulatory sequences well known to those of skill in the art are included in the vector to ensure expression in the target cells. Several vector elements are required: a promoter with a down-stream cloning site for minigene insertion; a polyadenylation signal for efficient transcription termination; an E. coli origin of replication; and an E. coli selectable marker (e.g. ampicillin or kanamycin resistance). Numerous promoters can be used for this purpose, e.g., the human cytomegalovirus (hCMV) promoter. See, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,580,859 and 5,589,466 for other suitable promoter sequences.

Additional vector modifications may be desired to optimize minigene expression and immunogenicity. In some cases, introns are required for efficient gene expression, and one or more synthetic or naturally-occurring introns could be incorporated into the transcribed region of the minigene. The inclusion of mRNA stabilization sequences can also be considered for increasing minigene expression. It has recently been proposed that immunostimulatory sequences (ISSs or CpGs) play a role in the immunogenicity of DNA′ vaccines. These sequences could be included in the vector, outside the minigene coding sequence, if found to enhance immunogenicity.

In some embodiments, a bicistronic expression vector, to allow production of the minigene-encoded epitopes and a second protein included to enhance or decrease immunogenicity can be used. Examples of proteins or polypeptides that could beneficially enhance the immune response if co-expressed include cytokines (e.g., IL2, IL12, GM-CSF), cytokine-inducing molecules (e.g. LeIF) or costimulatory molecules. Helper (HTL) epitopes could be joined to intracellular targeting signals and expressed separately from the CTL epitopes. This would allow direction of the HTL epitopes to a cell compartment different than the CTL epitopes. If required, this could facilitate more efficient entry of HTL epitopes into the MHC class II pathway, thereby improving CTL induction. In contrast to CTL induction, specifically decreasing the immune response by co-expression of immunosuppressive molecules (e.g. TGF-β) may be beneficial in certain diseases.

Once an expression vector is selected, the minigene is cloned into the polylinker region downstream of the promoter. This plasmid is transformed into an appropriate E. coli strain, and DNA is prepared using standard techniques. The orientation and DNA sequence of the minigene, as well as all other elements included in the vector, are confirmed using restriction mapping and DNA sequence analysis. Bacterial cells harboring the correct plasmid can be stored as a master cell bank and a working cell bank.

Purified plasmid DNA can be prepared for injection using a variety of formulations. The simplest of these is reconstitution of lyophilized DNA in sterile phosphate-buffer saline (PBS). A variety of methods have been described, and new techniques may become available. As noted above, nucleic acids are conveniently formulated with cationic lipids. In addition, glycolipids, fusogenic liposomes, peptides and compounds referred to collectively as protective, interactive, non-condensing (PINC) could also be complexed to purified plasmid DNA to influence variables such as stability, intramuscular dispersion, or trafficking to specific organs or cell types.

Target cell sensitization can be used as a functional assay for expression and MHC class I presentation of minigene-encoded CTL epitopes. The plasmid DNA is introduced into a mammalian cell line that is suitable as a target for standard CTL chromium release assays. The transfection method used will be dependent on the final formulation. Electroporation can be used for “naked” DNA, whereas cationic lipids allow direct in vitro transfection. A plasmid expressing green fluorescent protein (GFP) can be co-transfected to allow enrichment of transfected cells using fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS). These cells are then chromium-51 labeled and used as target cells for epitope-specific CTL lines. Cytolysis, detected by 51 Cr release, indicates production of MHC presentation of mini gene-encoded CTL epitopes.

In vivo immunogenicity is a second approach for functional testing of minigene DNA formulations. Transgenic mice expressing appropriate human MHC molecules are immunized with the DNA product. The dose and route of administration are formulation dependent (e.g. IM for DNA in PBS, IP for lipid-complexed DNA). Twenty-one days after immunization, splenocytes are harvested and restimulated for 1 week in the presence of peptides encoding each epitope being tested. These effector cells (CTLs) are assayed for cytolysis of peptide-loaded, chromium-51 labeled target cells using standard techniques. Lysis of target cells sensitized by MHC loading of peptides corresponding to minigene-encoded epitopes demonstrates DNA vaccine function for in vivo induction of CTLs.

Peptides may be used to elicit CTL ex vivo, as well. The resulting CTL, can be used to treat chronic tumors in patients that do not respond to other conventional forms of therapy, or will not respond to a peptide vaccine approach of therapy. Ex vivo CTL responses to a particular tumor antigen are induced by incubating in tissue culture the patient's CTL precursor cells (CTLp) together with a source of antigen-presenting cells (APC) and the appropriate peptide. After an appropriate incubation time (typically 1-4 weeks), in which the CTLp are activated and mature and expand into effector CTL, the cells are infused back into the patient, where they will destroy their specific target cell (i.e., a tumor cell). In order to optimize the in vitro conditions for the generation of specific cytotoxic T cells, the culture of stimulator cells is maintained in an appropriate serum-free medium.

Prior to incubation of the stimulator cells with the cells to be activated, e.g., precursor CD8+ cells, an amount of antigenic peptide is added to the stimulator cell culture, of sufficient quantity to become loaded onto the human Class I molecules to be expressed on the surface of the stimulator cells. In the present invention, a sufficient amount of peptide is an amount that will allow about 200, and preferably 200 or more, human Class I MHC molecules loaded with peptide to be expressed on the surface of each stimulator cell. Preferably, the stimulator cells are incubated with >2 μg/ml peptide. For example, the stimular cells are incubates with >3, 4, 5, 10, 15, or more μg/ml peptide.

Resting or precursor CD8+ cells are then incubated in culture with the appropriate stimulator cells for a time period sufficient to activate the CD8+ cells. Preferably, the CD8+ cells are activated in an antigen-specific manner. The ratio of resting or precursor CD8+(effector) cells to stimulator cells may vary from individual to individual and may further depend upon variables such as the amenability of an individual's lymphocytes to culturing conditions and the nature and severity of the disease condition or other condition for which the within-described treatment modality is used. Preferably, however, the lymphocyte:stimulator cell ratio is in the range of about 30:1 to 300:1. The effector/stimulator culture may be maintained for as long a time as is necessary to stimulate a therapeutically useable or effective number of CD8+ cells.

The induction of CTL in vitro requires the specific recognition of peptides that are bound to allele specific MHC class I molecules on APC. The number of specific MHC/peptide complexes per APC is crucial for the stimulation of CTL, particularly in primary immune responses. While small amounts of peptide/MHC complexes per cell are sufficient to render a cell susceptible to lysis by CTL, or to stimulate a secondary CTL response, the successful activation of a CTL precursor (pCTL) during primary response requires a significantly higher number of MHC/peptide complexes. Peptide loading of empty major histocompatability complex molecules on cells allows the induction of primary cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses. Peptide loading of empty major histocompatability complex molecules on cells enables the induction of primary cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses.

Since mutant cell lines do not exist for every human MHC allele, it is advantageous to use a technique to remove endogenous MHC-associated peptides from the surface of APC, followed by loading the resulting empty MHC molecules with the immunogenic peptides of interest. The use of non-transformed (non-tumorigenic), noninfected cells, and preferably, autologous cells of patients as APC is desirable for the design of CTL induction protocols directed towards development of ex vivo CTL therapies. This application discloses methods for stripping the endogenous MHC-associated peptides from the surface of APC followed by the loading of desired peptides.

A stable MHC class I molecule is a trimeric complex formed of the following elements: 1) a peptide usually of 8-10 residues, 2) a transmembrane heavy polymorphic protein chain which bears the peptide-binding site in its α1 and α2 domains, and 3) a non-covalently associated non-polymorphic light chain, β2microglobuiin. Removing the bound peptides and/or dissociating the β2microglobulin from the complex renders the MHC class I molecules nonfunctional and unstable, resulting in rapid degradation. All MHC class I molecules isolated from PBMCs have endogenous peptides bound to them. Therefore, the first step is to remove all endogenous peptides bound to MHC class I molecules on the APC without causing their degradation before exogenous peptides can be added to them.

Two possible ways to free up MHC class I molecules of bound peptides include lowering the culture temperature from 37° C. to 26° C. overnight to destablize β2microglobulin and stripping the endogenous peptides from the cell using a mild acid treatment. The methods release previously bound peptides into the extracellular environment allowing new exogenous peptides to bind to the empty class I molecules. The cold-temperature incubation method enables exogenous peptides to bind efficiently to the MHC complex, but requires an overnight incubation at 26° C. which may slow the cell's metabolic rate. It is also likely that cells not actively synthesizing MHC molecules (e.g., resting PBMC) would not produce high amounts of empty surface MHC molecules by the cold temperature procedure.

Harsh acid stripping involves extraction of the peptides with trifluoroacetic acid, pH 2, or acid denaturation of the immunoaffinity purified class I-peptide complexes. These methods are not feasible for CTL induction, since it is important to remove the endogenous peptides while preserving APC viability and an optimal metabolic state which is critical for antigen presentation. Mild acid solutions of pH 3 such as glycine or citrate-phosphate buffers have been used to identify endogenous peptides and to identify tumor associated T cell epitopes. The treatment is especially effective, in that only the MHC class I molecules are destabilized (and associated peptides released), while other surface antigens remain intact, including MHC class II molecules. Most importantly, treatment of cells with the mild acid solutions do not affect the cell's viability or metabolic state. The mild acid treatment is rapid since the stripping of the endogenous peptides occurs in two minutes at 4° C. and the APC is ready to perform its function after the appropriate peptides are loaded. The technique is utilized herein to make peptide-specific APCs for the generation of primary antigen-specific CTL. The resulting APC are efficient in inducing peptide-specific CD8+ CTL.

Activated CD8+ cells may be effectively separated from the stimulator cells using one of a variety of known methods. For example, monoclonal antibodies specific for the stimulator cells, for the peptides loaded onto the stimulator cells, or for the CD8+ cells (or a segment thereof) may be utilized to bind their appropriate complementary ligand. Antibody-tagged molecules may then be extracted from the stimulator-effector cell admixture via appropriate means, e.g., via well-known immunoprecipitation or immunoassay methods.

Effective, cytotoxic amounts of the activated CD8+ cells can vary between in vitro and in vivo uses, as well as with the amount and type of cells that are the ultimate target of these killer cells. The amount will also vary depending on the condition of the patient and should be determined via consideration of all appropriate factors by the practitioner. Preferably, however, about 1×10⁶ to about 1×10¹², more preferably about 1×10⁸ to about 1×10¹¹, and even more preferably, about 1×10⁹ to about 1×10¹⁰ activated CD8+ cells are utilized for adult humans, compared to about 5×10⁶-5×10⁷ cells used in mice.

Preferably, as discussed above, the activated CD8+ cells are harvested from the cell culture prior to administration of the CD8+ cells to the individual being treated. It is important to note, however, that unlike other present and proposed treatment modalities, the present method uses a cell culture system that is not tumorigenic. Therefore, if complete separation of stimulator cells and activated CD8+ cells is not achieved, there is no inherent danger known to be associated with the administration of a small number of stimulator cells, whereas administration of mammalian tumor-promoting cells may be extremely hazardous.

Methods of re-introducing cellular components are known in the art and include procedures such as those exemplified in U.S. Pat. No. 4,844,893 to Honsik, et al. and U.S. Pat. No. 4,690,915 to Rosenberg. For example, administration of activated CD8+ cells via intravenous infusion is appropriate.

The invention will be further described in the following examples, which do not limit the scope of the invention described in the claims.

Examples Example 1: A Strategy to Identify Neoepitopes for Vaccination

Our approach to identify tumor-specific neoepitopes involves 3 steps. (1) Identification of DNA mutations using whole genome or whole exome (i.e. only captured exons) sequencing of tumor versus matched germline samples from each patient. Our preliminary studies demonstrate that CLL cells contain many distinct genetic changes that alter amino acid sequence and could generate potential novel T cell epitopes. (2) Application of highly validated peptide-MHC binding prediction algorithms to generate a set of candidate T cell epitopes based on non-silent mutations present in tumors. We will confirm expression of mutated genes as RNA in CLL samples, and then confirm the peptide-HLA binding predictions using an experimental approach to quantify binding of candidate peptides to HLA alleles. (3) Generation of antigen-specific T cells against mutated peptides.

Example 2: Tumor and Normal Genome Sequencing for the Identification of Mutated Genes in Tumors of Patients with Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia (Step 1)

To detect tumor-specific mutations (that are not present in normal tissues), samples were collected from tumors and from normal tissues of each patient. For leukemias, tumors were purified using magnetic bead isolation or fluorescence-activated cell sorting using antibodies specific to tumor cells, e.g., the tumor cells of patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) express the CD5 and CD19 surface markers. Skin fibroblasts were used as a normal tissue control. DNA or RNA for sequencing was purified from isolated tumor or normal tissue cells. For melanoma, ovarian and other solid tumors (in which there is contamination with non-tumor cells), DNA and RNA were isolated from relatively homogeneous short-term cultures of tumor cells or from laser-captured tumor. PBMCs were used as normal control cells. For all samples, PBMCs were cryopreserved until needed for expansion of mutated peptide-specific T cells. Finally, short-term cultures of tumor cells were also cryopreserved for later use as targets of expanded T cells. Isolated genomic DNA or RNA was tested for nucleic acid integrity and purity prior to sequencing.

For each sample of DNA, whole genomic DNA was sheared and sequenced, or coding exons were captured by complementary oligonucleotides using hybrid selection and then sequenced (Gnirke et al., Nat Biotechnol. 2009, 27(2):182-9). DNA and RNA libraries were generated and sequenced using Illumina next-generation sequencing instruments.

Sequencing of 64 patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) yielded an average of 23 non-silent mutations that alter protein amino acid sequences (FIG. 3) in the tumor relative to the germline DNA sequence. These non-silent mutations fall into 5 distinct classes with the potential to generate neoepitopes: missense, splice-site, frame-shift (indel, insertions and deletions), read-through and gene fusions (FIG. 4). The frequencies of these mutations vary across individual patients (FIG. 5). All these mutations provide potential neoepitopes for immunization, with frame-shift, read-through and splice-site (e.g. with retained introns) mutations generating longer stretches of novel peptides, missense mutations leading to short peptides with single amino acid changes and finally, fusion genes generating hybrid peptides with novel junction sequences.

Example 3: Identification of HLA-Binding Peptides Derived from Expressed Proteins Harboring Tumor-Specific Mutations (Step 2)

The next question is whether mutated genes may generate peptides that can be presented by patient MHC/HLA proteins. First, several algorithms were used to predict 30 and 137 HLA-binding peptides with IC50 scores <500 nM from 10 missense mutations of Patient 1, and from 53 missense 1 indel and 2 gene fusions of Patient 2. An example for one missense mutation in a patient with 6 specific HLA alleles is shown with 2 predicted binding peptides out of 54 combinations of 9-mers peptides and HLA alleles (FIG. 6). To confirm that these genes are expressed in tumors, we measure RNA levels for the mutated genes (using several approaches that depend on the mutation class, FIG. 7), and found that 98% of mutated genes with HLA binding peptides were expressed.

The HLA binding capacity of all predicted peptides that pass RNA expression validation are then experimentally validated by performing competitive binding assays with test peptides versus reference peptides known to bind to the HLA allele. (Sidney et al. Curr Protoc Immunol. 2001, Chapter 18:Unit 18.3) (FIG. 8A). Of the subset that we submitted for experimental confirmation of HLA binding, 8 of 17 (47%) predicted peptides from missense mutations in Pt 1 were confirmed to have high binding affinities for HLA alleles (IC₅₀<500)(FIG. 8B). For Pt 2, 25 of 49 predicted peptides were experimentally confirmed as HLA binding (FIG. 8B). These results suggest that all peptides with predicted IC₅₀<150 nM show HLA binding experimentally, while a cut-off of <500 nM generates true binding peptides 40-50% of the time (FIG. 8C). Of note, 12 of the 25 confirmed mutated peptides of Pt 2 have >2-fold better binding affinity than the germline peptide (FIG. 9). While such peptides are preferable for incorporating in a tumor vaccine to reduce the chance of T cells cross-reacting with the germline peptide, peptides that do not show differential binding may still provide tumor-specific responses due to differential recognition of mutant vs. germline peptide by the T cell receptor.

Example 4: CD8+ T Cell Responses Against Mutated Peptides Identified by Sequencing CLL Patient Samples (Step 3)

Based on the predicted or experimentally verified HLA-binding mutated peptides, we can now determine whether T cells can be generated to recognize these tumor-specific mutated peptides. We thus synthesized peptides with binding scores of less than 1000 nM that are derived from genes with validated expression in tumor cells. To generate T cells of desired specificity, we stimulated T cells of the sequenced patients with peptide-pulsed (either using an individual peptide or a peptide pool) autologous APCs (dendritic cells and CD40L-expanded autologous B cells) on a weekly basis, in the presence of IL-2 and IL-7. After 3-4 rounds of stimulation, the expanded CD8+ cells were tested on ELISpot for evidence of reactivity against the peptide, based on IFNgamma secretion. Of the 17 candidate peptides of Patient 1 (FIG. 10), we have detected IFNgamma secretion in T cells against autologous DCs pulsed with a mutated peptide from the TLK2 gene.

Example 5: Mutated BCR-ABL Gene Binds to Patient MHC/HLA Proteins and can Elicit Mutant-Peptide-Specific CD8+ T Cells

We performed a more complete study of T cell responses to tumor-specific mutant peptides in patients with another type of leukemia, chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). CML is defined by the expression of a tumor-specific translocation, the product of the BCR-ABL gene fusion. Mutations in BCR-ABL develop in CML patients who develop drug resistance to front-line pharmacologic therapy with imatinib mesylate, which targets BCR-ABL. Potentially, these mutations may generate neoepitopes that T cells from the host, or an engrafted normal donor, can recognize when bound to MHC proteins; these T cells are likely to be minimally tolerized.

We considered the 20 most common mutations that evolve in patients with resistance to imatinib, and predicted the binding of 9- and 10-mer peptides tiled around each mutation. Using either the NetMHC (Nielsen et al. PLoS One. 2007, 2(8):e796) or IEDB (Vita R et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 2010, 38:D854-62) predictive algorithms, we predicted binding of 84 peptides from 20 common mutations to one or more 8 common HLA alleles (IC₅₀<1000), with many peptides derived from the three most common mutations. 24 of 84 peptides were predicted to be strong binders (IC₅₀<50) (FIG. 11), 42 peptides intermediate binders (50<IC₅₀<500), and 18 peptides weak binders (500<IC₅₀<1000).

We focused our attention on a mutant peptide generated from the E255K (E255K-B255-263) mutation (KVYEGVWKK)(SEQ ID NO: 10) that is predicted to bind with high affinity to HLA-A3. (IC50=33.1). Using a competitive MHC binding assay (FIG. 8A), we experimentally confirmed the high binding affinity of E255K-B for HLA-A3 (IC₅₀=17 nM) with ˜10-fold stronger HLA-binding of the mutant peptide compared to the parental (wildtype) peptide (FIG. 12A). E255K-B was also experimentally verified to bind other A3 supertype family members HLA-A*1101 and HLA-A*68. We next generated T cell lines against E255K-B from a normal HLA-A3+ donor and 2 E255K+/HLA-A3+ CML patients that each demonstrated greater specificity against the mutated than the parental peptide (FIG. 12B, 12C). E255K-B appears to be endogenously processed and presented since T cells reactive for E255K-B also responded to HLA-A3+ APCs transfected with a minigene encompassing 227 base pairs surrounding the E255K mutation. Finally, E255K reactivity in one patient developed only following curative allo-HSCT (FIG. 12D). These studies demonstrate that leukemia-driven genetic alterations can provide novel immunogenic tumor-specific antigen targets that are associated with clinical response in vivo. Our approach to identifying immunogenic T cell epitopes of mutated BCR-ABL thus illustrates an effective strategy for applying bioinformatics tools to discover T cell epitopes from mutated genes.

Example 6: Patient T Cell Clones that Recognize Tumor Epitopes can Selectively Kill Cells Presenting Mutated Epitopes

Confirmation of target specificity of T cells is best addressed by characterization of individual T cell clones. We therefore typically isolate mutated peptide-specific T cell clones by limiting dilution of reactive T cell lines and then use standard chromium release assays to screen for T cell clones that demonstrate differential killing of mutated vs germline peptide-pulsed autologous APCs. Using a standard dilution series for each peptide, we measure the concentration of peptide required for 50% killing. If the ratio of wild type to mutant peptides needed for 50% killing is greater than 10-fold, we conclude that there is differential recognition of these peptides by T cells, as seen previously for mutated tumor antigens. We have carried out this procedure for a CML tumor antigen, CML66. To determine whether CML66-peptide-specific T cells recognize processed and presented epitopes, CML66-peptide-reactive T cells were incubated with autologous APCs transduces to express the entire CML66 protein. We expressed CML66 by nucleofection of either plasmid DNA, or in vitro transcribed RNA (in DCs, CD40L-expanded B cells, or K562 cells with engineered HLA molecules). As shown in FIG. 13A, stimulated T cells were specific to HLA-B4403 bound CML66-derived peptide epitope (peptide 66-72C). Since whole CML66 protein was efficiently expressed when CD40L-expanded B cells were nucleofected with CML66 mRNA (FIG. 13B), we were able to use these cells (or peptide pulsed cells) as targets in a standard chromium release assay and found that the T cells lysed these targets cell effectively (FIG. 13C). Comparable assays, including lysing of patient-matched tumor cells, are being carried out for each of the mutated peptide-specific T cell lines generated from each cancer patient (e.g. using the T cell lines described in Examples 6 and 7).

Example 7: Mutated Tumor Drivers as Potential Tumor Antigens

Of 1188 nonsilent mutations across 64 patients, we identified 8 recurrent mutations, including SF3B1 (16% of CLL patients), TP53 (12.5%), MYD88 (9%), ATM (9%), FBXW7 (6%), MAPK1 (5%), GNB1 (3%) and M6PR (3%) (FIGS. 14A-14C). These mutations (especially the most frequent ones: SF3B1, TP53, MYD88 and ATM) are predicted to be driver mutations that are essential for tumor development or progression. These driver genes represent promising tumor-specific antigens for inclusion in a vaccine.

SF3B1 is the most frequently mutated gene in CLL, is mutated at conserved sites, is highly expressed in CLL patients (FIG. 15), and has not been previously described. The most common SF3B1 mutation was K700E (40% of SF3B1 mutations); genotyping of an additional 89 independent CLL patients uncovered 6 more patient tumors harboring this mutation. By applying peptide-HLA binding algorithms to the SF3B1 mutations, we predict binding of the mutated peptides to the most common HLA-A2 allele (FIG. 16). If a peptide that harbors the most common mutation in CLL (SF3B1 K700E) binds the most common class I HLA allele (HLA-A2), then this peptide is an excellent candidate for inclusion in a CLL vaccine for many CLL patients.

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1.-20. (canceled)
 21. A method for selecting a subject-specific plurality of epitopes for preparing a cancer cell specific pharmaceutical composition to treat cancer in a single subject, the method comprising (a) (i) whole genome sequencing or whole exome sequencing cancer cell nucleic acids from a first biological sample comprising cancer cells from the single subject, thereby obtaining a first plurality of nucleic acid sequences comprising cancer cell nucleic acid sequences; and (ii) whole genome sequencing or whole exome sequencing non-cancer cell nucleic acids from a second biological sample comprising non-cancer cells from the single subject, thereby obtaining a second plurality of nucleic acid sequences comprising non-cancer cell nucleic acid sequences; (b) identifying a plurality of cancer specific nucleic acid sequences that are specific to the cancer cells of the single subject based on a comparison of the first plurality of nucleic acid sequences obtained in (a)(i), to the second plurality of nucleic acid sequences obtained in (a)(ii), wherein the identified plurality of cancer specific nucleic acid sequences encodes two or more different MHC-binding epitope sequences of two or more different proteins that are expressed by the cancer cells, and wherein each of the two or more different MHC-binding epitope sequences of the two or more different proteins comprises a cancer specific amino acid mutation that is not present in the non-cancer cells from the single subject; (c) selecting at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences based on a calculation of binding affinities of the two or more different MHC-binding epitope sequences identified in (b) to an MHC protein encoded by an HLA allele of the single subject by an MHC peptide binding analysis using a program implemented on a computer system, wherein each of the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences is calculated to bind to a protein encoded by an HLA allele of the single subject with an IC₅₀ of less than 500 nM.
 22. The method of claim 21, wherein the method further comprises formulating the pharmaceutical composition, wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises one or more polypeptides comprising the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (c), or one or more polynucleotides encoding one or more polypeptides comprising the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (c).
 23. The method of claim 22, wherein formulating comprises formulating the pharmaceutical composition with an adjuvant.
 24. The method of claim 23, wherein the adjuvant comprises poly I:poly C.
 25. The method of claim 22, wherein each of the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences is present in the pharmaceutical composition at an amount of from 50 μg to 1.5 mg.
 26. The method of claim 21, wherein a tumor-specific T cell response is induced in the single subject.
 27. The method of claim 21, wherein the method further comprises administering an immunostimulatory agent or an anti-immunosuppressive agent.
 28. The method of claim 27, wherein the immunostimulatory agent or the anti-immunosuppressive agent is selected from the group consisting of an anti-CTLA-4 agent, an anti-PD1 agent, an anti-PD-L1 agent, an anti-CD25 agent, and an indoleamine (2,3)-dioxygenase (IDO) inhibitor.
 29. The method of claim 22, wherein (i) each of the one or more polypeptides that comprises a high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequence of the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (c) has a length of from 8 to 50 naturally occurring amino acids, or (ii) each of the one or more polynucleotides that encodes a polypeptide comprising a high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequence of the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (c) encodes a polypeptide that has a length of from 8 to 50 naturally occurring amino acids.
 30. The method of claim 29, wherein (i) each of the one or more polypeptides that comprises a high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequence of the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (c) is greater than 15 amino acids in length, or (ii) each of the one or more polynucleotides that encodes a polypeptide comprising a high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequence of the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (c) encodes a polypeptide that is greater than 15 amino acids in length.
 31. The method of claim 21, wherein (i) a first high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequence of the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (c) is predicted to bind to a protein encoded by a first HLA allele of the single subject; and (ii) the first high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequence or a second high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequence of the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (c) is predicted to bind to a protein encoded by a second HLA allele of the single subject that is different than the first HLA allele.
 32. The method of claim 22, wherein formulating comprises (a) expressing or synthesizing the one or more polypeptides comprising the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (c); or (b) producing the one or more polynucleotides encoding the one or more polypeptides comprising the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (c).
 33. The method of claim 21, wherein the protein encoded by an HLA allele of the single subject is an MHC class I protein, and wherein each of the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (c) has a length of from 8 to 12 naturally occurring amino acids.
 34. The method of claim 21, wherein the cancer specific amino acid mutation that is not present in the non-cancer cells from the single subject is encoded by a frameshift mutation.
 35. The method of claim 21, wherein each of the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences is calculated to bind to a protein encoded by an HLA allele of the single subject with an IC₅₀ of 100 nM or less.
 36. The method of claim 21, wherein the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (c) comprises at most 20 high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences.
 37. The method of claim 21, wherein the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (c) comprises at least 4 high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences for administration.
 38. The method of claim 21, wherein identifying comprises identifying the two or more different proteins that are expressed by cancer cells of the single subject by measuring levels of RNA encoding the two or more different proteins in the cancer cells of the single subject.
 39. The method of claim 21, wherein (i) an affinity of one or more of the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (c) to the protein encoded by an HLA allele of the single subject is not experimentally measured, or (ii) an affinity of T cells of the single subject to a complex of a peptide sequence of the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (c) and a protein encoded by an HLA allele of the single subject is not experimentally measured.
 40. The method of claim 21, wherein the cancer cells from the single subject are cancer cells of a solid cancer.
 41. The method of claim 1, wherein each of the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences binds to a protein encoded by an HLA allele of the single subject with an IC₅₀ of less than 150 nM.
 42. The method of claim 1, wherein the program implemented on a computer system comprises a validated peptide-MHC binding prediction algorithm.
 43. A method for producing pharmaceutical composition comprising a subject-specific plurality of MHC-binding epitope sequences or one or more polynucleotides encoding the subject-specific plurality of MHC-binding epitope sequences, the method comprising: (a) identifying a plurality of cancer specific nucleic acid sequences that are specific to cancer cells of a single subject based on a comparison of (A) nucleic acid sequences obtained by whole genome sequencing or whole exome sequencing of cancer cells from the single subject to (B) nucleic acid sequences obtained by whole genome sequencing or whole exome sequencing of non-cancer cells from the single subject, wherein the identified plurality of cancer specific nucleic acid sequences encodes two or more different MHC-binding epitope sequences of two or more different proteins that are expressed by the cancer cells, and wherein each of the two or more different MHC-binding epitope sequences of the two or more different proteins comprise a cancer specific amino acid mutation that is not present in the non-cancer cells from the single subject; (b) selecting at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences based on a calculation of binding affinities of the two or more different MHC-binding epitope sequences identified in (a), to an MHC protein encoded by an HLA allele of the single subject by an MHC peptide binding analysis using a program implemented on a computer system, wherein each of the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences is calculated to bind to a protein encoded by an HLA allele of the single subject with an IC50 of less than 500 nM; and (c) producing a subject-specific pharmaceutical composition comprising one or more polypeptides comprising the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (b), or one or more polynucleotides encoding one or more polypeptides comprising the at least two high affinity MHC-binding epitope sequences selected in (b), wherein producing the subject-specific pharmaceutical composition comprises: (i) combining the one or more polypeptides with a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, wherein the one or more polypeptides are synthesized or expressed from a recombinant polynucleotide that encodes the one or more polypeptides, or (ii) combining the one or more polynucleotides with a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, wherein the one or more polynucleotides are recombinant.
 44. A subject-specific pharmaceutical composition that is specific to cancer cells of a single subject with cancer comprising: (a) a plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides, wherein one or more of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides induces a cancer-specific T cell response in the single subject, and an adjuvant, or (b) one or more polynucleotides encoding the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides; wherein (i) the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides is from about 13-20 selected cancer neoantigen peptides; (ii) each of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides is about 15-30 amino acids in length; and (iii) the cancer is a solid cancer; and wherein each selected cancer neoantigen peptide of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides: (A) comprises a neoepitope that is predicted to bind to a protein encoded by an HLA allele expressed by the single subject with an IC50 less than 500 nM, (B) comprises a mutation that is not present in non-cancer cells of the single subject, and (C) is encoded by an expressed gene of the cancer cells of the single subject, wherein the mutation of each selected cancer neoantigen peptide of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides comprises: (A) a point mutation, (B) a splice-site mutation, (C) a frameshift mutation, (D) a read-through mutation, or (E) a gene-fusion mutation; and wherein the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides or the one or more polynucleotides encoding the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides are selected by a process comprising: (1) selecting a plurality of nucleic acid sequences from a pool of nucleic acid sequences sequenced from the cancer cells of the single subject that encodes a plurality of candidate peptides comprising one or more different mutations not present in a pool of nucleic acid sequences sequenced from non-cancer cells of the single subject, wherein each candidate peptide comprises one or more mutations, and wherein the pool of nucleic acid sequences sequenced from the cancer cells of the single subject and the pool of nucleic acid sequences sequenced from the non-cancer cells of the single subject are sequenced by whole genome sequencing or whole exome sequencing; (2) predicting which candidate peptide sequences of the plurality of candidate peptide sequences comprise a neoepitope that binds to the protein encoded by an HLA allele expressed by the single subject with an IC₅₀ less than 500 nM by an MHC peptide binding analysis using a program implemented on a computer system; and (3) selecting the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides or the one or more polynucleotides encoding the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides from the candidate peptide sequences based on the MHC peptide binding analysis.
 45. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein a first selected cancer neoantigen peptide of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides is predicted to bind to a protein encoded by a first HLA allele expressed by the single subject and a second selected cancer neoantigen peptide of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides is predicted to bind to a protein encoded by a second HLA allele expressed by the single subject that is different than the first HLA allele.
 46. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the pharmaceutical composition further comprises an anti-TNFR superfamily agent.
 47. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the neoepitope of each selected cancer neoantigen peptide of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides is predicted to bind to the protein encoded by an HLA allele of the single subject with an IC₅₀ less than 250 nM.
 48. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 47, wherein the neoepitope of each selected neoantigen peptides of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides is predicted to bind to the protein encoded by an HLA allele of the single subject with an IC₅₀ less than 100 nM.
 49. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein selecting comprises comparing the plurality of nucleic acid sequences from a first pool of nucleic acid sequences sequenced from the cancer cells of the single subject to a plurality of nucleic acid sequences from a second pool of nucleic acid sequences sequenced from the non-cancer cells of the single subject.
 50. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the composition further comprises an anti-immunosuppressive agent.
 51. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 50, wherein the anti-immunosuppressive agent is an anti-CTLA-4 agent, an anti-PD1 agent, an anti-PD-L1 agent, an anti-CD25 agent or an indoleamine (2,3)-dioxygenase (IDO) inhibitor.
 52. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 45, wherein the first HLA allele expressed by the single subject is a class I HLA allele and the second HLA allele expressed by the single subject is a class I HLA allele or a class II HLA allele.
 53. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 45, wherein a complex of a neoepitope of a selected neoantigen peptide and the protein encoded by an HLA allele of the single subject is recognized by a T cell receptor of a T-lymphocyte of the single subject.
 54. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the solid cancer is selected from the group consisting of breast cancer, ovarian cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, kidney cancer, gastric cancer, colon cancer, testicular cancer, head and neck cancer, pancreatic cancer, brain cancer, bladder cancer, and melanoma.
 55. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein each selected cancer neoantigen peptide of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides is present in the composition at an amount of from 50 μg to 1.5 mg.
 56. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein (i) an ability of the neoepitope of each selected cancer neoantigen peptide of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides to bind to the protein encoded by an HLA allele expressed by the single subject is unknown, or (ii) an ability of a T cell receptor of a T-lymphocyte of the single subject to bind a complex of a neoepitope of a selected neoantigen peptide and the protein encoded by an HLA allele of the single subject is unknown.
 57. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein each selected cancer neoantigen peptide of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides is a synthetic peptide.
 58. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the protein encoded by an HLA allele of the single subject is a class I HLA protein or a class II HLA protein.
 59. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the adjuvant comprises a TLR-based adjuvant, a mineral oil based adjuvant, or a combination thereof.
 60. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the mutation that is not present in non-cancer cells of the single subject is not essential for development or progression of the cancer cells of the single subject.
 61. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 59, wherein the adjuvant comprises poly I:poly C.
 62. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the method used to produce the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides further comprises formulating the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides with the adjuvant.
 63. A kit, comprising: (a) a first component comprising the pharmaceutical composition of claim 44; and (b) a second component comprising an anti-immunosuppressive agent or anti-immunostimulatory agent.
 64. The kit of claim 65, wherein the anti-immunosuppressive agent or anti-immunostimulatory agent is selected from the group consisting of an anti-CTLA agent, an anti-PD-1 agent, an anti-PD-L1 agent, an anti-CD25 agent, an indoleamine (2,3)-dioxygenase inhibitor and combinations thereof.
 65. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the adjuvant comprises poly I:poly C.
 66. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the neoepitope of each selected cancer neoantigen peptide of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides that comprises a point mutation is predicted to bind to the protein encoded by an HLA allele expressed by the single subject with an IC₅₀ less than 150 nM.
 67. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the one or more polynucleotides encoding the selected plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides is DNA or mRNA.
 68. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the one or more polynucleotides encoding the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides comprises two or more polynucleotides each encoding at least one selected cancer neoantigen peptide of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides.
 69. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the one or more polynucleotides encoding the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides comprises a polynucleotide comprising a first sequence encoding a first selected cancer neoantigen peptide of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides operatively linked to a second sequence encoding a second selected cancer neoantigen peptide of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides.
 70. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides are expressed peptides.
 71. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the solid cancer is melanoma.
 72. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the solid cancer is glioblastoma.
 73. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the mutation of each selected cancer neoantigen peptide of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides is (a) a point mutation and the neoepitope of the selected cancer neoantigen peptide is predicted to bind to the protein encoded by an HLA allele expressed by the single subject with an IC₅₀ of less than 500 nM, or (b) is encoded by a new open reading frame sequence resulting from a frameshift mutation.
 74. The subject-specific pharmaceutical composition of claim 44, wherein the mutation of each selected cancer neoantigen peptide of the plurality of selected cancer neoantigen peptides is (a) a point mutation and the neoepitope of the selected cancer neoantigen peptide is predicted to bind to the protein encoded by an HLA allele expressed by the single subject with an IC₅₀ of 150 nM or less.
 75. A subject-specific pharmaceutical composition that is specific to cancer cells of a single subject, the pharmaceutical composition comprising: (I) a polypeptide or polynucleotide encoding the polypeptide, wherein the polypeptide comprises a plurality of amino acid sequences, wherein each amino acid sequence of the plurality of amino acid sequences has formula: X₁-X₂-X₃-X₄-X₅-X₆-X₇-[X]_(n) wherein each of X₁, X₂, X₃, X₄, X₅, X₆, X₇, and [X]_(n) represents a natural amino acid, wherein n is an integer of from 1 to 43, wherein at least one of X₁, X₂, X₃, X₄, X₅, X₆, X₇, and [X]_(n) of each amino acid sequence of the plurality of amino acid sequences is a mutant amino acid; and wherein at least two of the amino acid sequences of the plurality of amino acid sequences: (a) are encoded by at least two different genes of cancer cells of the single subject, (b) are present in at least two different proteins expressed by the cancer cells of the single subject, (c) are not encoded by the at least two different genes of non-cancer cells of the single subject; and (II) a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. 